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  #11  
Old 05-20-2003, 09:31 PM
grunt66 grunt66 is offline
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It was three legions , 17th, 18th and 19th legions. Wiped out to a man by Armnius'army in the Teutoberger forest .
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  #12  
Old 07-02-2003, 10:36 PM
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You are right three legions were lost in germania I was thinking of the battle in the east with the visigoths near Constantinople now Istanbul Turkey where the Empireur Valens was killed. The Romans never recovered from that one.
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  #13  
Old 09-26-2003, 08:51 AM
Beldan Beldan is offline
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There is a new book out on the Roman defeat in Germania .
" The Battle that Stopped Rome" .
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Old 10-04-2003, 07:15 PM
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Thanks Belden I will try to find the book you mentioned .
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  #15  
Old 01-13-2004, 06:35 PM
Houdini Houdini is offline
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Ok...so who has a break down of the Roman army.My friend is dying to know how close to our Current Army they were.
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Old 01-14-2004, 11:05 AM
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Houdini,

Here's a website on the breakdown of the Roman Army.

http://www.roman-empire.net/army/army.html
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Old 01-14-2004, 02:25 PM
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That has got to be one of the best sites I have ever seen for the Roman Army.Thanx a bunch and my buddy thanx you too!!!!He has already started reading through it...LOL.
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Old 02-12-2004, 02:26 AM
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home : index : ancient Rome : article by Jona Lendering ?
The Roman legions

A Roman legion was an army unit consisting of heavily armed soldiers, equiped with shields, armor, helmets, spears and swords. In the early republic, the strength of a legion was about 3,000 men; there were 4,800 legionaries in the days of Julius Caesar; the twenty-five legions that defended the empire during the reign of Augustus counted more than 5,000 soldiers. They were the backbone of the Roman army, supported by auxiliary troops. Although in the third century, large cavalry units gradually superseded the legions as Rome's most important force, many of them are attested in the fourth and early fifth centuries.
On this site, you will find an alphabetical and chronological catalogue of the imperial legions. An overview of the armies in certain provinces is here.
Geographical overview

A Roman legionary
(c.75 CE) Alphabetical catalogue
The following table catalogue contains only the legions that served under the early empire.
I Adiutrix III Parthica XII Fulminata
I Germanica IIII Macedonica XIII Gemina
I Italica IIII Flavia Felix XIV Gemina
I Macriana Liberatrix IIII Scythica XV Apollinaris
I Minervia V Alaudae XV Primigenia
I Parthica V Macedonica XVI Gallica
II Adiutrix VI Ferrata XVI Flavia Firma
II Augusta VI Victrix XVII
II Italica Pia VII Claudia XVIII
II Parthica VII Gemina XIX
II Traiana Fortis VIII Augusta XX Valeria Victrix
III Augusta IX Hispana XXI Rapax
III Cyrenaica X Fretensis XXII Deiotariana
III Gallica X Gemina XXII Primigenia
III Italica XI Claudia XXX Ulpia Victrix


A Roman legionary
(fourth century)
(Fectio reenactment group) In the fourth century, we hear of other legions, but at that moment, the legions were no longer the backbone of the Roman army. Their names are included in the following table:
I Iulia Alpina I Pontica III Isaura
I Armeniaca II Iulia Alpina IIII Italica
I Flavia Constantia II Armeniaca IIII Martia
I Flavia Gallicana II Brittannica IIII Parthica
I Flavia Martis II Flavia Constantia V Iovia
I Flavia Pacis II Flavia Virtutis V Parthica
I Illyricorum II Herculia VI Gallicana
I Iovia II Isaura VI Herculia
I Isaura Sagitaria III Iulia Alpina VI Hispana
I Martia III Diocletiana VI Parthica
I Maximiana III Flavia Salutis XII Victrix
I Noricorum III Herculia

Chronological catalogue
Before Caesar:
VII, later known as Claudia Pia Fidelis
VIII, later known as Augusta
IX, later known as Hispana (disappears 161?)
X, later known as Gemina


Caesar (Musei Vaticani) Julius Caesar, 58 BCE
XI, later known as Claudia Pia Fidelis
XII, later known as Fulminata

Caesar, 57 BCE:

XIII, later known as Gemina
XIV, later known as Gemina (destroyed 54 by Ambiorix and immediately refounded)

Caesar, 53 BCE:

XIV (again)
XV (destroyed 49-48 in Africa)
XVI (destroyed 49-48 in Africa)

Caesar, 52 BCE:

V Alaudae (disbanded 70)
VI Ferrata

Caesar, 49-48 BCE (using consular numbers):

I, later known as Germanica (disbanded 70)
II
III, later known as Gallica
IIII, later known as Macedonica (reconstituted 70 as Flavia)

Pansa, 43 BCE:
I
II, later known as Augusta
III, later known as Augusta
IIII
V

Mark Antony:
III Cyrenaica
IIII Scythica


Augustus Octavian, 41-40 BCE:
V Macedonica
VI Victrix
X Fretensis
XV Apollinaris
XVI Gallica (reconstituted 70 as Flavia)
XVII (lost 9 CE)
XVIII (lost 9 CE)
XIX (lost 9 CE)

Octavian 30 BCE:

XX Valeria Victrix
XXI Rapax (lost 92)
XXII Deiotariana (lost 132?)

Caligula, 39 CE:
XV Primigenia (disbanded 70)
XXII Primigenia


Nero (Musei Capitolini) Nero, 66:
I Italica

Nero, 68:

I Adiutrix

Galba, 68:
VII Galbiana: later known as VII Gemina (after merging with I Germanica)


Domitian Vespasian, 70:
II Adiutrix
IIII Flavia Felix (formerly IIII Macedonica)
XVI Flavia Firma (formerly XVI Gallica)
Domitian, 83:
I Minervia
Trajan, 105:
II Traiana Fortis
XXX Ulpia Victrix


Septimius Severus
(Musei Capitolini) Marcus Aurelius, 168:
II Italica Pia
III Italica
Septimius Severus, 197:
I Parthica
II Parthica
III Parthica
Gordian III, 237?:
IIII Italica

The following units are known from late-ancient sources and are called 'legions'. In fact, they were no longer the elite troops of the Roman empire. The main forces were cavalry units; the legions were the garrisons of the frontier zone.
Mid-third century:

VI Gallicana
VI Hispana


Aurelian Aurelian (270-275):
I Illyricorum
IIII Martia
Probus (276-282)
I Isaura Sagitaria
II Isaura
III Isaura
Before Diocletian:
I Armeniaca
II Armeniaca
II Brittannica


Diocletian
Archaeological Museum, Izmir Diocletian (284-305):
I Iovia
I Martia
I Maximiana
I Noricorum
I Pontica
II Flavia Constantia
II Herculia
III Diocletiana
III Herculia
IIII Parthica
V Iovia
V Parthica
VI Herculia
VI Parthica

Constantius I (293-306):
I Flavia Gallicana Constantia
I Flavia Martis
XII Victrix


Constans Constantius II (337-361)
I Flavia Constantia
I Flavia Pacis
II Flavia Virtutis
III Flavia Salutis
Constans (337-350):
I Iulia Alpina
II Iulia Alpina
III Iulia Alpina
With all these men Rome still fell a professional army isnt the answer the patriotic citisen must serve to preserve freedom and resist any future dictators , long live the republic.
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  #19  
Old 03-19-2004, 08:44 PM
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http://www.roman-empire.net/army/army.html there is a lot of information at this sight.
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Old 11-13-2005, 09:38 PM
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Default Does anyone have an idea what the upkeep of a legion in peace time did cost?

Does anyone have an idea what the upkeep of a legion in peace time did cost? An easy calculation suggests 6,000 x 225 denarii for the pay of the legionaries; but there must have been other expenses. Anyone any thoughts?

Jona
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Posted: Mon 31 Oct 2005, 12:09 Post subject:

We're talking about a pre-Domitianic legion here? The easy way would indeed be to calculate the total number of soldiers multiplied by salary. 6000 is a bit high perhaps (80*60 / 80 * 54 + 160*5 would be more conventional), but that might compensate for the sesquiplicarii, duplicarii, equites and centurions who would earn considerably more. I don't think I have ever read anything about the other costs for a legion. A legion would make purchases with traders for food, clothing, etc, but the soldiers suffered deductions from their pay for that. Otherwise, it would have been largely self-sufficient._________________Greets! Jasper Oorthuys Associate Webmaster, Romanarmy.com Admin, Roman Army Talk v.2 Editor, Journal of Ancient Military Studies Rules for posting



Let's assume a Domitianic legion in which a soldier received 300 denarii/year. (I'm trying to figure out what the income of the fiscus Judaicus -40,000,000 sesterces/year- signified for the Roman empire.) Cohorts 2-9 had 9*6*80=4320 men, and Cohort 1 had 5*160 men; 5120 men >>> 1,536,000 den. There were 58 centurios, who earned 5,000 den >>> 290,000 den. There were 120 cavalrymen, who earned 400 den >>> 48,000 den.These figures are more or less "hard". I've now visited the library and can get a bit beyond thus. Yann Le Bohec offers a guess for the officers. Primipilus: 25,000 Five equestrian tribunes: 5*2500 >>> 12,500 One angusticlavian tribune: 10,000 Praefectus castrorum: 25,000 Prefect of the cavalry: 15,000I think it is remarkable that a tribune earned less than a centurio, although as an equestrian, he did of course not need the money. The legatus was, in the Severan age, reckoned to earn as much a procurator: >>> 60,000 (assuming he was a sexenarius). Assumed sesquiplicarii: Tesserarii: 59*450 >>> 26,550 Cornicens: 59*450 >>> 26,550 Signifers: 59*450 >>> 26,550Assumed duplicarius: optiones: 59*600 >>> 35,400Assumed triplicarius: aquilifer: 900Grand total: 2,137,450 denarii, or about 9,000,000 sesterces. This is, I think, a reasonable guess for the payment of wages. Does anyone have an idea about additional bonuses (bootnail & shoe allowance, fodder allowance for cavalry)? How much money was spent for the upkeep of the fort? What was the prize of weapons and armor? Etcetera?_________________Jona Lendering http://www.livius.org

I can't remember ever reading about it. Maybe someone else? If not, this might make a little article.
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Prices in Ancient Rome People probably have wondered about ancient prices for as long as they have been aware of the existence of ancient coins. There is no shortage of references to prices, expenses and values in ancient texts and inscriptions, but they tend to leave us with as many questions as answers. For instance, Diocletian's Edict is a valuable resource. However, its very existence suggests that there was tremendous pressure driving prices much higher than those quoted in its text. We are left with the question of how nearly its price levels reflected the actual prices realized in the market.
ANY attempt to understand prices in Ancient Rome, simply in terms of a "dollars to denarii" exchange rate, is bound to be confounded with inaccuracies. Manual labor was much less expensive in those days than it is in western, "developed" nations today, and manufactured goods existed then only in the original sense of the word, "made by hand". Of course, there was some streamlining of the process, e.g., the use of molds for ceramic and metal products, and perhaps for some glass products.
The only approach to understanding the ancient price structure(s) which makes any sense is a widespread reading of the prices for services, real estate, commodities, and labor, across a wide range of times and places within the ancient Mediterranean world. It has been asserted, for instance, that no reference exists to the price of a cow in Republican Rome. Whether that is true or not, there is much we do not know (and may never know) about ancient prices. However, as we grow more familiar with the prices that we do have, we may be able to make fair inferences about those we do not have.
A FEW EXAMPLES OF ANCIENT PRICESaily wages 1/2 to 2 denarii (Bible/Rabbinic texts) Everyday cloak 12 to 30 den. Loaf of Bread about 1 As Slave (usually) a few coppers to 200 den. Cow 100-200 den. 2 sparrows 1 As (Matthew 10:29) House rent 48 to 288 den. per annum. From Daniel Sperber, "Roman Palestine,200-400: Money and Prices".
(1st-2nd cent.,C.E.):Legionary's pay per annum HS1200 (HS = sesterces)Legionary's bonus on discharge HS12,000State price for a peck of grain HS 3 (Annals,XV:39)Martial's new book HS20 (Martial,I:117)Admission to bath 1 quadransValue of a small farm 100,000 sesterces (Pliny,VI:3)Also, "Juvenal twice says that he could live comfortably as a single man on the income from [HS]400,000 invested capital, plus a few slaves and silver plate. Assuming that his income would be five per cent of his capital...", he could live comfortably on HS20,000 per year. from "The Letters of the Younger Pliny", tr. Betty Radice.
There is a grafitto from Pompeii, translated in #93 of Roman Civilization, Sourcebook II: The Empire, by Lewis and Reinhold, that appears to have been a lodger's accounting of expenses for five days, which I quote [numbers after items purchased refer to Asses] : 6th [day]: cheese 1, bread 8, oil 3, wine 3 7th: bread 8, oil 5,onions 5, bowl 1, bread for the slave[?] 2, wine 2 8th: bread 8, bread for the slave[?] 4, grits 3 9th: wine for the winner 1 denarius, bread 8, wine 2, cheese 2 10th: ...1 denarius, bread 2, for women 8, wheat 1 denarius, cucumber 1, dates 1, incense 1, cheese 2, sausage 1, soft cheese 4, oil 7

maniple
Wikipedia
maniple (military unit)
In 390 B.C., the Gauls sacked Rome after defeating the Roman Republican army at Allia River.
One of the weaknesses of the Roman army that the Gauls had exposed was the inflexibility of their Hellenic style phalanx formation that they inherited from the Etruscans. To overcome this sort of limitation, the army was split up into subsets called Maniples (it translates roughly to English as 'handfuls') which could perform actions with more independence from one another.
The army was organized into 3 lines during the Roman Republic, the hastati, the principes, and the triarii. Each of these lines was divided into maniples of 120, 120 and 60 men, respectively. Thus, the legion proper consisted of about 3,000 men.
There were also very light troops called velites. Unarmored and armed with stones or slings, they stood in front of the line to launch missiles first and screen the army's formation and size from the eyes of the enemy, but then they moved off when the battle began. The velites were not separated into maniples.
Drill and fighting formations
No part of drill is more essential in action than for soldiers to keep their ranks with the greatest exactness, without opening or closing too much. Troops too much crowded can never fight as they ought, and only embarrass one another. If their order is too open and loose, they give the enemy an opportunity of penetrating. Whenever this happens and they are attacked in the rear, universal disorder and confusion are inevitable. Recruits should therefore be constantly in the field, drawn up by the roll and formed at first into a single rank. They should learn to dress in a straight line and to keep an equal and just distance between man and man. They must then be ordered to double the rank, which they must perform very quickly, and instantly cover their file leaders. In the next place, they are to double again and form four deep. And then the triangle or, as it is commonly called, the wedge, a disposition found very serviceable in action. They must be taught to form the circle or orb; for well-disciplined troops, after being broken by the enemy, have thrown themselves into this position and have thereby prevented the total rout of the army. These evolutions, often practiced in the field of exercise, will be found easy in execution on actual service.[1]
References
Primary sources for early Roman military organization include the writings of Polybius and Livy.
A primary source for later Roman military organisation and tactics is Epitoma rei militaris (also referred to as De Re Militari), by Flavius Vegetius Renatus
External links
1. The Military Institutions of the Romans (De Re Militari) Translated from the Latin by Lieutenant John Clarke (1767)
Velites
Wikipedia
Velites
Velites were a class of light infantry in the army of the Roman Republic,
The Velites (pronounced well-ih-tays) were skirmishers, armed with a short sword (Gladius) and several javelins. They wore light armor, which usually consisted of little more than greaves and a bronze helmet, and carried a basic round shield. Their armor and weaponry made them the most mobile of all the Roman infantry of the time. The Velites did not form their own line; maniples of Principe and Hastati had a certain number of velites assigned to them. During battle the Velites would engage the enemy with their spears before retiring behind the Hastati and Principe, however their effectiveness is often overlooked, as the Velites were responsible for turning back war elephants on many different occasions.
The Velites of the Roman Republican army at its height in the 2nd century BC were remnants of the earlier rorarii and accensi classes, which were comprised of the unreliable and otherwise poor combatants of the original 5 class Phalanx. Though they still owned land, the Velites were usually the poorer of the Roman military accepted classes, until the time of Marius. During the time up until the establishment of the Roman Empire under Augustus, the Roman Army frequently accepted foreigners into its service in an effort to keep sufficient manpower. The Velites were disbanded when Augustus reorganized the army.
Mar?i?us (m?r'ē-əs, măr'-) , Gaius 155??86 B.C..
Roman general and politician. Elected consul seven times, he reformed the military and lost a disastrous civil war (88) to his political rival Sulla.

The American Heritage? Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition Copyright ? 2004, 2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

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Encyclopedia
Marius, Caius (m?r'ēəs) , c.157 B.C.?86 B.C., Roman general. A plebeian, he became tribune (119 B.C.) and praetor (115 B.C.) and was seven times consul. He served under Scipio Africanus Minor at Numantia and under Quintus Metellus against Jugurtha. Later, when he was commander of Roman forces against Jugurtha, he hastened the end of the war by a bold attack against the Numidians. In 102 B.C. he defeated the Teutones at Aix, and the next year he bested the Cimbri at Vercelli. Rivalry with Sulla over the command against Mithradates VI of Pontus turned into civil war; Sulla won, and Marius fled Rome. When Sulla went off to fight, Marius, now allied with the consul Cinna, returned and slaughtered (88 B.C.) his opponents. Marius was a great general, whose military reforms resulted in a professional soldiery with political influence, but he was also capable of great treachery in furthering his own ambitions.
principes
Wikipedia
principes
The principes formed the second line of battle in the Republican Roman Army. They were experienced soldiers, positioned behind the hastati and in front of the triarii. Like all soldiers of the Roman Republican Army, they wore what armor they could afford. Like the hastati, the Principe were also equipped with a pilum and a gladius.
In battle, the principes were meant to counter attack if the hastati happen to fail in the initial engagement. Originally, the principes were organized like the hastati, in centuries of 60 under a Centurion. However, by the late Republican era, they contained 80 men like the triarii. Two centuries comprised a maniple and 10 maniples were used in battle line formation. Triarii
Wikipedia
Triarii
The Triarii was the third standard line of infantry of the Roman Empire's army. Its name is derived from the prefix "tri" (three). When suffering defeat, the first and second lines, the Hastati and Principes, fell back on the Triarii to attempt to reform the line and allow for a counter attack or withdrawal of the other lines. Because falling back on the Triarii was an act of desperation, to mention, "falling on the Triarii" became a common Roman phrase indicating one to be in a desperate situation.
Triarii, not unlike the Principes, were divided into ten maniples of 160 men. Each maniple consisted of two centuries consisting of 80 men each, commanded by a Centurion. The Triarii were the veterans of the Roman Army, making them perfectly suited for reinforcing the two front lines of the formation. They were armored much like the rest of the Roman Republican Army, with whatever they could afford.
External links
? Brief Description of Triarii

The final category of heavy infantryman in the Roman Legion of the mid-republican period (3rd and 2nd century BC). The Triarii were the veteran soldiers who formed the third and final line of the legion, arrayed in ten maniples of 60 men. Unlike the hastati and principes the Triarii were equipped with a long hoplite spear instead of the Pilum although otherwise they were armed in the same way as their colleagues with the Gladius and body shield. The Triarii spend most of the battle kneeling behind their shields waiting for combat. Only if the first two lines of the legion had been defeated would the triarii enter combat and this was normally a sign of a serious crisis.
See Also
Books on the Roman Empire
Subject Index: Punic Wars
JR, 20 December 2002
gladius
Wikipedia
gladius
This is about the gladius weapon. For the 2003 video game Gladius, see Gladius (video game).
A gladius (gladius hispaniensis, the Spanish sword) is a short sword, 600 mm (24 inches) long, used by the Roman legionaries. However, contrary to common belief, it was not used by gladiators, who used a version with a shorter blade (300 mm to 350 mm [12 in. to 14 in.] long). In the 3rd century, improvements in metal working technology which allowed the introduction of the spatha finally antiquated the venerated gladius.
The gladius was crafted from soft iron and the exterior was carburized using coal dust on the face of the anvil. This was necessary because the soft iron was not hard enough to have taken an edge before the carbon of the coal powder was added to the exterior of the blade.
It is straight and double-edged, with a V-shaped tip, and primarily constructed for thrusting action and use together with a large rectangular shield, the scutum. The cross-section of the gladius is typically rhomboid, providing the blade with good stability for stabbing.
The gladius is frequently depicted in coats of arms, especially of military corps.
The name is Latin, therefore its plural is "gladii", and the diminutive form Gladiolus is also the name of a flowering plant with sword-shaped leaves.
See also Legio IX Hispana for some photos of historical reconstructionists drawing and holding gladii.
Roman legion
Wikipedia
Roman legion
See also Legion software and Legion forummer.
The Roman legion (from the Latin legio, meaning levy) was the basic military unit of ancient Rome. It consisted of about 5,000 to 6,000 (later 8,000) infantry soldiers and several hundred cavalrymen. Legions were named and numbered; about 50 have been identified, although there were never that many in existence at any one time. Usually there were 28 Legions plus their Auxiliaries, with more raised as needed or as able.
History
Originally, in the time of the Kings, the legio was the whole Roman army, comprised of levied citizens. At some point, possibly in the beginning of the Roman Republic, the legio was subdivided into two separate legions, each one ascribed to one of the two consuls. In the first years of the Republic, when the warfare was mostly concentrated in raids, it is uncertain if the full manpower of the legions was summoned at one time. Legions become organized in a more formal way in the 4th century BC, as Roman warfare evolved to more frequent and planned operations, and the consular army was raised to two legions. The military tribunes appeared after 331 BC. The internal organization of the legion became more sophisticated, from the classic phalanx to the manipular system, and allowed important tactical innovations. Later in the Roman Empire, the legion was commonly reinforced by allied troops, the allae.
Throughout the history of Rome's Late Republic and Imperial era, the legions played an important political role. Their actions could secure the empire for an Imperial hopeful or take it away. An example is the defeat of Vitellius in the Year of the Four Emperors, decided in the moment that the Danubian legions chose to support Vespasian. By the 1st Century BC the threat of the Legions under a demagogue was recognized. Governors could not leave their provinces with their Legions. When Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon he left his provinces and came to Italy under arms. This last precipitated a constitutional crisis.
Organization
In the Republic, legions had an ephemeral existence. Except for Legio I to IV, which were the consular army (two per consul), other units were levied by campaign. The shift to more permanent legions came about primarily for domestic reasons, i.e. to make them loyal to the Emperor, not their generals. In The Empire, the legion was standardized, with symbols and an individual history where men were proud to serve. The legion was commanded by a legate or legatus. Aged around thirty, he would usually be a senator on a three year appointment. Immediately subordinate to the legate would be six elected military tribunes - five would be staff officers and the remaining one would be a noble heading for the Senate. There would also be a group of officers for the medical staff, the engineers, record-keepers and the praefecti castrorum (commander of the camp) as well as other specialists such as priests and musicians.
In the middle of the Republic, legions were composed of the following units:
Cavalry or equites. The cavalry was originally the most prestigious unit, where wealthy young Roman upstarts displayed their skill and prowess, laying the foundation for an eventual political career. Cavalry equipment was purchased by each of the cavalrymen and consisted of a round shield, helmet, body armour, sword and one or more javelins. The cavalry was outnumbered in the legion. In a total of circa 3000 men, the legion had only around 300 horsemen, divided into 10 units of 30 men. These men were commanded by decurions. Additional to this heavy cavalry, there would be the light cavalry levied from poor citizens and wealthy young citizens not old enough to be in the hastati or the equites.
Light infantry or velites. The velites were basically javelin throwers who did not have a precise formal organization or function in battle, being used where there was need for them.
Heavy Infantry. This was the principal unit of the legion. The heavy infantry was composed of citizen legionaries that could afford the equipment composed of bronze helmet, shield, armour and short spear (pillum). The preferred weapon was the gladius, a short sword. The heavy infantry was subdivided, according to the legionaries' experience in the Republican Legion prior to the Marian reforms which abolished the separate classes of troops turning the legion into a professional force, into three separate lines:
The hastati (sing. hastatus) were the younger ones and formed the front line
The principes (sing. princeps), men in their prime (late twenties early thirties), composed the second line of the legion
The triarii (sing. triarius) were the veteran soldiers that occupied the rear; only in extreme situations would they be used in battle.
Each of these three lines was subdivided into maniples, the lowest subunit of the army, each consisting of two centuries commanded by the senior of the two centurions. Centuries were nominally 100 soldiers each (thus the name), but in practice might be as few as 60, especially in the less numerous triarii manipules. Each century had its standard and was made up of ten units called contubernia. In a contubernium, there would be eight soldiers who shared a tent, millstone, a mule and cooking pot (depending on duration of tour).
In battle, the manipules were commonly arranged in a chequered formation called quincunx. Principes manipules would cover the open space left by the hastati, and be covered in return by triarii manipules.

In the late republic, the cohort of which there were six to ten, substitutes the manipule as the basic tactical unit. The cohort is composed of six to eight centuries and is led by a centurion assisted by an optio, a soldier who could read and write. The senior centurion of the legion was called the primus pilus, a career soldier and advisor to the legate. Under the Marian (named after Gaius Marius) reforms Legions were for the first time organised into Cohorts.
A legion therefore had around 4,800 legionaries as well as a large number of camp followers, servants and slaves. Legions could contain as many as 6,000 fighting men, although at times in Roman history the number was reduced to 1,000 to curb the power of mutinous commanders. Julius Caesar's legions had only around 3,500 men.
Auxiliaries, each Legion had a same size or near same size auxiliary which contained specialist units, engineers and pioneers, artillerymen and siege craftsmen, service and support units plus units made up of non-citizens (who were granted Roman citizenship upon discharge) and undesireables. These were usually formed into complete units such as light cavalry, light infantry, and laborers.
Legionary Officers
Senior Officers
? Legatus Legionis: The overall Legionary commander. This post was generally appointed by the emperor to a man who was a former Tribune and held command for 3 or 4 years, although could serve for a much longer period. In a province with only one legion, the Legatus was also the provincial governor and in provinces with multiple legions, each legion has a Legatus and the provincial governor has overall command of them all.
? Tribunus Laticlavius: Named for the broad striped toga worn by men of senatorial rank, this tribune was appointed by the Emperor or the Senate. Though generally quite young and less experienced than the Tribuni Angusticlavii, he served as second in command of the legion, behind the Legate.
? Praefectus Castrorum: The camp Prefect. Generally he was a long serving veteran who had been promoted through the ranks of the centurions and was 3rd in overall command.
? Tribuni Angusticlavii: Each legion had 5 military tribunes of equestrian (knight) class citizens. They were in many cases career officers and served many of the important administrative tasks of the Legion, but still served in a full tactical command function during engagements.
? Primus Pilus: The "First File" or "First Spear" was the commanding centurion of the first cohort and the senior centurion of the entire Legion. When the Primus Pilus retired he was guaranteed entry into the Equestrian Class. He was paid 60 times the base wage.
Mid-Level Officers
? Centurions: Each Legion had 59 or 60 centurions, one to command each century of the 10 cohorts. They were the backbone of the professional army and were the career soldiers who ran the day to day life of the soldiers as well as issuing commands in the field. They were generally moved up from the ranks, but in some cases could be direct appointments from the Emperor or other higher ranking officials. The cohorts were ranked from the First to the Tenth and the Century within each cohort ranked from 1 to 6, with only 5 Century in the First Cohort (For a total of 59 Centurions and the Primus Pilus). The Century that each Centurion commanded was a direct reflection of his rank. (Command of the First Century of the First Cohort was the highest and the 6th Century of the 10th Cohort was the lowest). The 5 Centurions of the First Cohort were called the Primi Ordines (paid 30 times the base wage), and included the Primus Pilus. The Pilus Prior was the commander of the first Century of each Cohort.
Low-Level Officers
? Aquilifer: A single position within the Legion. The Aquilifer was the Legion's Standard or Eagle bearer and was an enormously important and prestigious position. Losing the aquila (eagle) was considered a great dishonor. The next step up would be a post as a Centurion. Paid twice the basic wage.
? Signifer: Each Century had a Signifer (59). He was responsible for the men's pay and savings, and the standard bearer for the Centurial Signum, a spear shaft decorated with medallions and often topped with an open hand to signify the oath of loyalty taken by the soldiers. It was this banner that the men from each individual Century would rally around. A soldier could also gain the position of Discentes signiferorum, or standard bearer in training. Paid twice the basic wage.
? Optio: One for each Centurion (59), they were appointed by the Centurion from within the ranks to act as his second in command. Paid twice the basic wage.
? Tesserarius: (Guard Commander) Again there were 59 of these, or one for each Century. They acted seconds to the Optios. Paid one and a half times the basic wage.
? Cornicen: (Horn blower) They worked hand in hand with the Signifer drawing the attention of the men to the Centurial Signum and issuing the audible commands of the officers.
? Imaginifer: Carried the Standard bearing the image of the Emperor as a constant reminder of the troop's loyalty to him.
Symbols
From 104 BC onwards, each legion used an eagle as its standard. The standard was carried by an officer known as an aquilifer, and its loss was considered to be a very serious embarrassment.
References and further reading
? Roman Warfare, Adrian Goldsworthy
? History of Warfare, John Keegan
See also
? Roman Republic, Roman Empire
? Punic wars
? Phalanx
? List of Roman legions
? Legionary
? Donativum
? Disciplina

legion's fortresses in the year 68 AD

1. II AUGUSTA (Gloucester)
2. IX HISPANIA (Lincoln)
3. XX VALAERIA VICTRIX (Shrewsbury)
4. V ALAUDAE - XV PRIMIGENIA (Xanten)
5. XVI GALLICA (Neuss)
6. I GERMANICA (Bonn)
7. IV MACEDONICA - XXII PRIMIGENIA (Mainz)
8. XXI RAPAX (Windisch)
9. X GEMINA (Deutsch - Altenburg)
10. XIII GEMINA (Budapest)
11. XI CLAUDIA (lower Donau)
12. VIII AUGUSTA (lower Donau)
13. III GLALICA (lower Donau)
14. VII CLAUDIA (lower Donau)
15. IV SCYTHIA - XII FULMINATA - VI FERRATA (Antiochia)
16. V MACEDONIA - X FRENTENSIS - XV APOLLINARIS (Judaea)
17. III CYRENAICA - XXII DEIOTARIANA (Alexandria)
18. III AUGUSTA (Tunesia / Algeria)
19. VI VICTRIX (Spain)
20. I ITALICA (Italy)
21. XIV GEMINA (Lyon)
Greek Monetary Units
Attic talent = 60 minae (26.196 kg = 57.8 lb)
mina = 100 drachmae (436.6 gr = 15.5 oz)
stater = 2 drachmae
drachma = 6 obols
obol = 12 chalcia

Egyptian drachma = 1/4 Attic drachma
1 Attic drachma = 1 Roman denarius

Roman Monetary Units
libra (pound) = 12 unciae (about 327.5 gr = 11.5 oz)
aureus (gold piece) = 25 denarii
denarius (10 as pc) = 4 sesterces
sestertius (HS) = 4 asses (originally 2.5 asses)

Greek Weights & Measures
artabe (Persian) = about 1 medimnos (about 52 liters; a dry measure
equal to a Roman medimnus)
pechus (cubit) = 1.5 podes (44.4 cm = 17.48 inches)
pous (foot) = 16 daktuloi (29.6 cm = 11.6 inches)
daktulos (finger) = 18.5 mm = .728 inches
aroura (in Egypt) = about 1 Roman iugerum (land area)

Roman Weights & Measures
modius = 1/6 medimnus (about 8.6 liters = 15.17 pints)
pes (foot) = 29.57 cm (11.6 inches)
mille passus (mile) = about 1500m (1618 yards)
iugerum = 28,800 sq Roman feet (.252 ha)



References & Sources
The food mosaic was taken from www.tunisiaonline.com/mosaics/mosaics.html.

The cart image above is (c) John Nicols, 1999, taken from the OSSHE Historical and Cultural Atlas Resource.

Units of money, weight and measure from B. Campbell, The Roman Army: a Sourcebook. London: Routledge, 1996.
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