Does all of military use JP-8 instead of JP-5 jet fuel?

[revwardoc]

We used JP-4 on our C-141's and ground maintenance equipment (generators, floodlights, air compressors, etc.). At least once a year some idiot would put it into his car's gas tank and he'd have the fastest set of wheels on base...for about 30 seconds.

[Dragon Lady]

Yeah Dan,
Tends to eat through seals and hoses, don't it!
We used JP4 in the C5s too. One of the little pohdunk FOBs I worked at after I separated used JP5.
It is my understanding that the higher the number after the JP (jet propulsion) the higher the octane. The JPs and the AVs are up into the higher alcohol ranges.
But I'll check with my Chem buds to be sure.
DL

[Sarp]

hey everyone im new here. hey david i remember using something listed as" JET A-1" what was that??? the cav had it all over and do ya know what petroleum product was used on the sand roads to keep the sand down around the choppers??? i must say this looks like a nice website i think ill stay a bit...
Sarp

[BLUEHAWK]

Welcome Sarp, welcome home.

It's quite a good place to be, here.

Sir Blue

[Margaret Diann]

These are interestsing comments & I shall think about them some.

This is one use of JP-5 in the Gulf War 1

Here is a govt post comparing JP-5 to JP-8

I hear that they still make JP-5 ... some special blend for the Coast Guard at a refinery in Valdez, Alaska.

This special forces Green Beret has very advanced 'gulf war syndrome symptoms' and he cleaned a lot of weapons with several types of gun cleaners AND he stood behind the C-130s lots of times as the jet fuel was spraying ... awaiting boarding when he was a paratrooper in Afghanistan and other places. Staff Sgt James Alford is not an isolated case, Bill O'Reilly

I've heard from a couple aviation ordance military, but this is the saddest story of all - 'Cisero'

Filling up at the pump?

Back in college days, it was revealed that gas station operators were suffering from high rates of cancer and lead poisoning. (the oldtimers especially). This was never really reported in the mainstream media, too boring; but the station managers knew it as it was somewhat common knowledge in the business.

The more one handled gasoline, the less the life expectancy because of the additives. We felt that that was one good reason why companies had good reason to shift over to self-serve stations almost universally - fewer employees to get poisoned and wind up using up insurance money with long term sicknesses. About all my bosses who were longterm pros in running gas stations wound up with cancer and dying!

So, I was thinking, maybe out there in Cyberland, there is health statistical data regarding janitors/custodians, such as in medical and life insurance tables for risk and life expectancy, mostly likely sicknesses, diseases, prognosis, etc. Maybe not. Custodians would be one group who used 2-buto day in, day out.

Maybe it would be something to ponder. - Mike

PS
I only worked at a gas station for a couple years, then moved on to custodian while awaiting degree. I never developed health problems, the but one senior manager that I had was sick with poisoning almost every month; later succumbing to cancer. But he had been in the business all his life - the chemical poisonings apparently caught up with him.

That was also when refineries were phasing out leaded gasolines to production of nolead exclusively. That probably saved many many countless lives although it sure made cars put out stinky exhaust until catalytic converters were perfected.

There are who knows how many additives in gasoline these days that can get into the bloodstream - not saying that they're dangerous, but still, I wear my chemical resistant gloves when working with gas and even kerosene!

[drone_pilot]

I will have to look into all this info as i worked with JP4 fr over 7 years, when the fuel tank was full a pressure relese valve would pop and you would be breathing in a cloud of fuel.

Needless to say my health is bad now (liver problems, excema and more)

if anyone else has any more info on JP4 i'd like to see it.
Thanks

DP

[Margaret Diann]

Originally posted by drone_pilot I will have to look into all this info as i worked with JP4 fr over 7 years, when the fuel tank was full a pressure relese valve would pop and you would be breathing in a cloud of fuel. Needless to say my health is bad now (liver problems, excema and more) if anyone else has any more info on JP4 i'd like to see it.
Thanks - DP

Thanks for sharing. There is a military man from a Navy ship who brought this up. He said he had 'gulf war syndrome' symptoms but from the mid 1985s and he kept coming back to jet fuel. I think he is on to something. He is looking into it some more. So, you are welcome to e-mail me and I will pass your query on to him. e-mail is valdez@alaska.com

I am wondering about a particular component that may be an additive in the jet fuel labeled as pesticide. (For some reason it is in the pesticide category - but not in the sense that you would expect.)

Isn't it interesting what Colmurphy shared

JP-4 and JP-5 are just different grades of Diesel Fuel. Not pesticides. They were mixed with agent orange during the Vietnam War to give the DEFOLIANT some stickyness to adhere to the plants. I was not aware that it was used as a pesticide except to spray standing water to kill mosquitos. (By sufficating the Mosquito Larvae).

[Margaret Diann]

http://www.valdezlink.com/re/health/kerosene.htm

C₆H₁₄O_{2(2-butoxyethanol) Per MSDS, EGBE causes AIHA}

Burning with kerosene LINK Photo A soldier would stir and waste would burn down Chad Pagel is from Cloverdale, IN. He gave me this photo in @ 2003. He also shared about a time his group was securing an airport & their bowels went liquid (another glycol ether exposure of some type) more

Chad of Indiana (upper right photo) shared that he had a job of burning human waste, etc with kerosene. He has 'the syndrome ' A man who worked for a contractor in Iraq more recently went out jogging past the burn pits, and had sudden blood in urine, hemoglobin dropped from 13 down to 4; hematocrit went from 40 to 11 Man in Iraq with sudden, acute AIHA * LINK after jogging past the burn pits Returned to the States and was diagnosed with Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia Has had 4 series of Rituxin treatments; 73 blood transfusions; gamma globulin treatments, too Has been in remission on the AIHA and also for NHL which showed up. His home is in Valdez, Alaska; worked in Iraq as civilian with Halliburton

Thus it is the KEROSENE that can cause similar harm as glycol ether exposure!

Kerosene molecular formula C12H26 No O2 ... BUT there is plenty of air when burned No oxygen, but when it's burned, there is lots of O2 to add in

Quote: "That is just one of a whole lot of hydrocarbons in kerosene (and even at that, it is incorrect because, in chemistry, capital letters do matter). Kerosene is not a compound but a mixture of many hydrocarbons as well as smaller quantities of other chemicals and so does not have a chemical formula."

Special Remarks on Chronic Effects on Humans:

[Margaret Diann]

Originally Posted by Houdini

I was part of a fuel unit in the Gulf War Episode 1 and we had roughly 12 million gallons of Deisel with about 4 million gallons of kerosene.Run the Kero through a filter seperator a time or 2 and you have JP-4 I do believe it was.

I didn't pay much attention in fuel class due to being an Engineer...I just wanted to see what happens when it explodes.

Made a back up copy of this thread; and corrected a couple of web pages that were broken; not at the same location as now, 9 years later.


http://www.valdezlink.com/gwv/fuel.htm#4

According to a post on patriotfiles.com www.patriotfiles.com/forum/archive/index.php/t-32562.html Back up <--- link there were 4 million gallons of kerosene brought into the first Gulf war. When burned, already being refined, it must become a strong version of glycol ether chemicals; and the cause of harm to some soldiers who were burning it ... even for those who passed nearby.

C₆H₁₄O_{2(2-butoxyethanol) Per MSDS, EGBE causes AIHA}

http://www.valdezlink.com/re/health/kerosene.htm

Chad of Indiana (upper right photo) shared that he had a job of burning human waste, etc with kerosene. He has 'the syndrome ' A man who worked for a contractor in Iraq more recently went out jogging past the burn pits, and had sudden blood in urine, hemoglobin dropped from 13 down to 4; hematocrit went from 40 to 11 Man in Iraq with sudden, acute AIHA * LINK after jogging past the burn pits Returned to the States and was diagnosed with Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia Has had 4 series of Rituxin treatments; 73 blood transfusions; gamma globulin treatments, too Has been in remission on the AIHA and also for NHL which showed up. His home is in Valdez, Alaska; worked in Iraq as civilian with Halliburton

Thus it is the KEROSENE that can cause similar harm as glycol ether exposure!

Kerosene molecular formula C12H26 No O2 ... BUT there is plenty of air when burned No oxygen, but when it's burned, there is lots of O2 to add in

Quote: "That is just one of a whole lot of hydrocarbons in kerosene (and even at that, it is incorrect because, in chemistry, capital letters do matter). Kerosene is not a compound but a mixture of many hydrocarbons as well as smaller quantities of other chemicals and so does not have a chemical formula."

[Boats]

I recall being saturated with JP5 many times. I also recall AvGas for the old prop planes.
JP5 had a high flashpoint - whereas AvGas would ignite in heartbeat. I was a fuels specialist in my day and we even had some aircraft that used something called "fish oil"

In a pinch ships can burn JP products if their black oil was low. But not for long durations.


Aviation fuel burns were common - and if your shoes got saturated your flesh would come off your feet. You could get some serious eye injuries too.

Here's some history I found on Aviation Fuels;

Fuel for piston-engine powered aircraft (usually a high-octane gasoline known as avgas) has a low flash point to improve its ignition characteristics. Turbine engines can operate with a wide range of fuels, and jet-aircraft engines typically use fuels with higher flash points, which are less flammable and therefore safer to transport and handle.

The first axial compressor jet engine in widespread production and combat service, the Junkers Jumo 004 on the Messerschmitt Me 262A fighter, and the Arado Ar 234B jet recon-bomber, burned either a special synthetic "J2" fuel or diesel fuel. Gasoline was a third option but unattractive due to high fuel consumption.[2] Other fuels used were kerosene or kerosene and gasoline mixtures. Most jet fuels in use since the end of World War II are kerosene-based. Both British and American standards for jet fuels were first established at the end of World War II. British standards derived from standards for kerosene use for lamps—known as paraffin in the UK—whereas American standards derived from aviation gasoline practices. Over the subsequent years, details of specifications were adjusted, such as minimum freezing point, to balance performance requirements and availability of fuels. Very low temperature freezing points reduce the availability of fuel. Higher flash point products required for use on aircraft carriers are more expensive to produce.[3] In the United States, ASTM International produces standards for civilian fuel types, and the U.S. Department of Defense produces standards for military use. The British Ministry of Defence establishes standards for both civil and military jet fuels.[3] For reasons of inter-operational ability, British and United States military standards are harmonized to a degree. In Russia and former Soviet Union countries, grades of jet fuels are covered by the State Standard (GOST) number, or a Technical Condition number, with the principal grade available in Russia and members of the CIS being TS-1.

The annual United States usage of jet fuel was 20.2 billion US gallons (7.6×1010 L) in 2009.[4]

Types Edit

Jet A Edit

Shell Jet A-1 refueller truck on the ramp at Vancouver International Airport. Note the signs indicating UN1863 hazardous material and JET A-1.

A US Airways Boeing 757 being fueled at Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood International Airport.

An Iberia Airbus 340 being fueled at La Aurora International Airport.
Jet A specification fuel has been used in the United States since the 1950s and is usually not available outside the United States[5] and a few Canadian airports such as Toronto and Vancouver,[6] whereas Jet A-1 is the standard specification fuel used in the rest of the world other then the former Soviet states where TS-1 is the most common standard. Both Jet A and Jet A-1 have a flash point higher than 38 °C (100 °F), with an autoignition temperature of 210 °C (410 °F).[7]

Differences between Jet A and Jet A-1 Edit
The primary difference is the lower freezing point of A-1:[5]

Jet A's is −40 °C (−40 °F)
Jet A-1's is −47 °C (−53 °F)
The other difference is the mandatory addition of an anti-static additive to Jet A-1.

As with Jet A-1, Jet A can be identified in trucks and storage facilities by the UN number 1863 Hazardous Material placards.[8] Jet A trucks, storage tanks, and plumbing that carry Jet A are marked with a black sticker with "Jet A" in white printed on it, adjacent to another black stripe.

Typical physical properties for Jet A and Jet A-1 Edit
Jet A-1 fuel must meet:

DEF STAN 91-91 (Jet A-1),
ASTM specification D1655 (Jet A-1), and
IATA Guidance Material (Kerosene Type), NATO Code F-35.
Jet A fuel must reach ASTM specification D1655 (Jet A)[9]

Typical physical properties for Jet A / Jet A-1[10]

Jet A-1 Jet A
Flash point 38 °C (100 °F)
Autoignition temperature 210 °C (410 °F)[11]
Freezing point −47 °C (−53 °F) −40 °C (−40 °F)
Max adiabatic burn temperature 2,500 K (2,230 °C) (4,040 °F) Open Air Burn temperature: 1,030 °C (1,890 °F)[12][13][14]
Density at 15 °C (59 °F) 0.804 kg/L (6.71 lb/US gal) 0.820 kg/L (6.84 lb/US gal)
Specific energy 43.15 MJ/kg 43.02 MJ/kg
Energy density 34.7 MJ/L 35.3 MJ/L
Jet B Edit
Jet B is a fuel in the naphtha-kerosene region that is used for its enhanced cold-weather performance. However, Jet B's lighter composition makes it more dangerous to handle.[9] For this reason it is rarely used, except in very cold climates. A blend of approximately 30% kerosene and 70% gasoline, it is known as wide-cut fuel. It has a very low freezing point of −60 °C (−76 °F) and a low flash point as well. It is primarily used in some military aircraft. It is also used in Canada, Alaska and sometimes Russia because of its freezing point.

Additives Edit

The DEF STAN 91-91 (UK) and ASTM D1655 (international) specifications allow for certain additives to be added to jet fuel, including:[15][16]

Antioxidants to prevent gumming, usually based on alkylated phenols, e.g., AO-30, AO-31, or AO-37;
Antistatic agents, to dissipate static electricity and prevent sparking; Stadis 450, with dinonylnaphthylsulfonic acid (DINNSA) as a component, is an example
Corrosion inhibitors, e.g., DCI-4A used for civilian and military fuels, and DCI-6A used for military fuels;
Fuel system icing inhibitor (FSII) agents, e.g., Di-EGME; FSII is often mixed at the point-of-sale so that users with heated fuel lines do not have to pay the extra expense.
Biocides are to remediate microbial (i.e., bacterial and fungal) growth present in aircraft fuel systems. Currently, two biocides are approved for use by most aircraft and turbine engine original equipment manufacturers (OEMs); Kathon FP1.5 Microbiocide and Biobor JF.[17]
Metal deactivator can be added to remediate the deleterious effects of trace metals on the thermal stability of the fuel. The one allowable additive is N,N’-disalicylidene 1,2-propanediamine.
As the aviation industry’s jet kerosene demands have increased to more than 5% of all refined products derived from crude, it has been necessary for the refiner to optimize the yield of jet kerosine, a high value product, by varying process techniques. New processes have allowed flexibility in the choice of crudes, the use of coal tar sands as a source of molecules and the manufacture of synthetic blend stocks. Due to the number and severity of the processes used, it is often necessary and sometimes mandatory to use additives. These additives may, for example, prevent the formation of harmful chemical species or improve a property of a fuel to prevent further engine wear.

Water in jet fuel Edit

It is very important that jet fuel be free from water contamination. During flight, the temperature of the fuel in the tanks decreases, due to the low temperatures in the upper atmosphere. This causes precipitation of the dissolved water from the fuel. The separated water then drops to the bottom of the tank, because it is denser than the fuel. Since the water is no longer in solution, it can form droplets which can supercool to below 0 °C. If these supercooled droplets collide with a surface they can freeze and may result in blocked fuel inlet pipes.[18] This was the cause of the British Airways Flight 38 accident. Removing all water from fuel is impractical; therefore, fuel heaters are usually used on commercial aircraft to prevent water in fuel from freezing.

There are several methods for detecting water in jet fuel. A visual check may detect high concentrations of suspended water, as this will cause the fuel to become hazy in appearance. An industry standard chemical test for the detection of free water in jet fuel uses a water-sensitive filter pad that turns green if the fuel exceeds the specification limit of 30 ppm (parts per million) free water.[19]A critical test to rate the ability of jet fuel to release emulsified water when passed through coalescing filters is ASTM standard D3948 Standard Test Method for Determining Water Separation Characteristics of Aviation Turbine Fuels by Portable Separometer.

Military jet fuels Edit


Machinist's Mate 3rd Class inspects a sample of JP-5 jet fuel aboard an amphibious transport dock ship
Military organizations around the world use a different classification system of JP (for "Jet Propellant") numbers. Some are almost identical to their civilian counterparts and differ only by the amounts of a few additives; Jet A-1 is similar to JP-8, Jet B is similar to JP-4.[20] Other military fuels are highly specialized products and are developed for very specific applications.

Jet fuels are sometimes classified as kerosene or naphtha-type.[3] Kerosene-type fuels include Jet A, Jet A-1, JP-5 and JP-8. Naphtha-type jet fuels, sometimes referred to as "wide-cut" jet fuel, include Jet B and JP-4.[3]

JP-1
was an early jet fuel[21] specified in 1944 by the United States government (AN-F-32). It was a pure kerosene fuel with high flash point (relative to aviation gasoline) and a freezing point of −60 °C (−76 °F). The low freezing point requirement limited availability of the fuel and it was soon superseded by other "wide cut" jet fuels which were kerosene-naphtha or kerosene-gasoline blends. It was also known as avtur.
JP-2 and JP-3
are obsolete types developed during World War II. JP-2 was intended to be easier to produce than JP-1 since it had a higher freezing point, but was never widely used. JP-3 was even more volatile than JP-2 and intended to improve production, but its volatility led to high evaporation loss in service.[22]
JP-4
was a 50-50 kerosene-gasoline blend. It had lower flash point than JP-1, but was preferred because of its greater availability. It was the primary United States Air Force (USAF) jet fuel between 1951 and 1995. Its NATO code is F-40. It is also known as avtag.
JP-5
is a yellow kerosene-based jet fuel developed in 1952 for use in aircraft stationed aboard aircraft carriers, where the risk from fire is particularly great. JP-5 is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons, containing alkanes, naphthenes, and aromatic hydrocarbons that weighs 6.8 pounds per U.S. gallon (0.81 kg/L) and has a high flash point (min. 60 °C or 140 °F).[23] This may well have been used by other countries for their military planes. Its freezing point is −46 °C (−51 °F). It does not contain antistatic agents. Other names for JP-5 are: NCI-C54784, Fuel oil no. 5, Residual oil no. 5. JP-5's NATO code is F-44. It is also called AVCAT fuel for Aviation carrier turbine fuel.[24]
The JP-4 and JP-5 fuels, covered by the MIL-DTL-5624 and meeting the British Specification DEF STAN 91-86 AVCAT/FSII (formerly DERD 2452),[25] are intended for use in aircraft turbine engines. These fuels require military-unique additives that are necessary in military weapon systems, engines, and missions.

JP-6
Flash point: tbd
Autoignition temperature: tbd
Freezing point: tbd
Open air burning temperatures: tbd
Specific Weight: 6.55 lb/gal[26]
Military Specification: MIL-J-25656
JP-6
is a type of jet fuel developed for the General Electric YJ93 jet engine of the XB-70 Valkyrie supersonic aircraft. JP-6 was similar to JP-5 but with a lower freezing point and improved thermal oxidative stability. When the XB-70 program was cancelled, the JP-6 specification, MIL-J-25656, was also cancelled.[27]
JP-7
was developed for the twin Pratt & Whitney J58 turbojet/ramjet engines of the SR-71 Blackbird and has a high flash point to better cope with the heat and stresses of high speed supersonic flight.
JP-8
is a jet fuel, specified and used widely by the U.S. military. It is specified by MIL-DTL-83133 and British Defence Standard 91-87. JP-8 is a kerosene-based fuel, projected to remain in use at least until 2025. It was first introduced at NATO bases in 1978. Its NATO code is F-34.
JP-10
is a gas turbine fuel for missiles, specifically the ALCM.[28] It contains a mixture of (in decreasing order) endo-tetrahydrodicyclopentadiene, exo-tetrahydrodicyclopentadiene, and adamantane. It is produced by catalytic hydrogenation of dicyclopentadiene. It superseded JP-9 fuel, achieving a lower low-temperature service limit of −65 °F (−54 °C).[28]
JPTS
was developed in 1956 for the Lockheed U-2 spy plane.
Zip fuel
designates a series of experimental boron-containing "high energy fuels" intended for long range aircraft. The toxicity and undesirable residues of the fuel made it difficult to use. The development of the ballistic missile removed the principal application of zip fuel.
Syntroleum
has been working with the USAF to develop a synthetic jet fuel blend that will help them reduce their dependence on imported petroleum. The USAF, which is the United States military's largest user of fuel, began exploring alternative fuel sources in 1999. On December 15, 2006, a B-52 took off from Edwards Air Force Base for the first time powered solely by a 50-50 blend of JP-8 and Syntroleum's FT fuel. The seven-hour flight test was considered a success. The goal of the flight test program was to qualify the fuel blend for fleet use on the service's B-52s, and then flight test and qualification on other aircraft.
USAF synthetic fuel trials Edit

On August 8, 2007, Air Force Secretary Michael Wynne certified the B-52H as fully approved to use the FT blend, marking the formal conclusion of the test program.


The USAF C-17 Globemaster III was built to perform development testing.
This program is part of the Department of Defense Assured Fuel Initiative, an effort to develop secure domestic sources for the military energy needs. The Pentagon hopes to reduce its use of crude oil from foreign producers and obtain about half of its aviation fuel from alternative sources by 2016. With the B-52 now approved to use the FT blend, the USAF will use the test protocols developed during the program to certify the C-17 Globemaster III and then the B-1B to use the fuel. To test these two aircraft, the USAF has ordered 281,000 US gal (1,060,000 l) of FT fuel. The USAF intends to test and certify every airframe in its inventory to use the fuel by 2011. They will also supply over 9,000 US gallons (34,000 l; 7,500 imp gal) to NASA for testing in various aircraft and engines.[needs update]

The USAF has certified the B-1B, B-52H, C-17, C-130J, F-4 (as QF-4 target drones), F-15, F-22, and T-38 to use the synthetic fuel blend.[29]

The U.S. Air Force's C-17 Globemaster III, F-16 and F-15 are certified for use of hydrotreated renewable jet fuels.[30][31] The USAF plans to certify over 40 models for fuels derived from waste oils and plants by 2013.[31] The U.S. Army is considered one of the few customers of biofuels large enough to potentially bring biofuels up to the volume production needed to reduce costs.[31] The U.S. Navy has also flown a Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet dubbed the "Green Hornet" at 1.7 times the speed of sound using a biofuel blend.[31] The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) funded a $6.7 million project with Honeywell UOP to develop technologies to create jet fuels from biofeedstocks for use by the United States and NATO militaries.[32]

Piston engine use Edit

Jet fuel is very similar to diesel fuel, and in some cases, may be burned in diesel engines. The possibility of environmental legislation banning the use of leaded avgas, and the lack of a replacement fuel with similar performance, has left aircraft designers and pilot's organizations searching for alternative engines for use in small aircraft.[33] As a result, a few aircraft engine manufacturers, most notably Thielert and Austro Engine, have begun offering aircraft diesel engines which run on jet fuel. This technology has potential to simplify airport logistics by reducing the number of fuel types required. Jet fuel is available in most places in the world, whereas avgas is only widely available in a few countries which have a large number of general aviation aircraft. A diesel engine may also potentially be more environmentally friendly and fuel-efficient than an avgas engine. However, very few diesel aircraft engines have been certified by aviation authorities. Diesel aircraft engines are uncommon today, even though opposed-piston aviation diesel powerplants such as the Junkers Jumo 205 family had been used during the Second World War.

Jet fuel is often used in ground support vehicles at airports, instead of diesel. The United States military makes heavy use of JP-8, for instance. However, jet fuel tends to have poor lubricating ability in comparison to diesel, thereby increasing wear on fuel pumps and other related engine parts.[citation needed] Civilian vehicles tend to disallow its use, or require that an additive be mixed with the jet fuel to restore its lubricity. Jet fuel is more expensive than diesel fuel but the logistical advantages of using one fuel can offset the extra expense of its use in certain circumstances.

Jet fuel contains more sulfur, up to 1,000 ppm, which therefore means it is more lubricative and does not currently require a lubricity additive as all pipeline diesel fuels require. The introduction of Ultra Low Sulfur Diesel or ULSD brought with it the need for lubricity modifiers. Pipeline diesels before ULSD were able to contain up to 500 ppm of sulfur and was called Low Sulfur Diesel or LSD. LSD is now only available to the off-road construction, locative and marine markets. As more EPA regulations are introduced, more refineries are hydrotreating their jet fuel production, thus limiting the lubricating abilities of jet fuel, as determined by ASTM Standard D445.

Synthetic jet fuel Edit

Main article: Synthetic fuel
A significant effort is under way to certify Fischer–Tropsch (FT) Synthesized Paraffinic Kerosene (SPK) synthetic fuels for use in United States and international aviation fleets. In this effort is being led by an industry coalition known as the Commercial Aviation Alternative Fuels Initiative (CAAFI),[34] also supported by a parallel initiative under way in the USAF,[35] to certify FT fuel for use in all aviation platforms. The USAF has a stated goal of certifying its entire fleet for use with FT synthetic fuel blends by 2011.[36] The CAAFI initiative aims to certify the civilian aviation fleet for FT synthetic fuels blends by 2010, and has programs under way to certify Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA) (aka Hydrogenated Renewable Jet (HRJ)) SPK biofuels as early as 2013.[37] "Hydroprocessed" and "hydrotreated" have also been used in lieu of "hydrogenated". Both FT and HEFA based SPKs blended with JP-8 are specified in MIL-DTL-83133H.

Synthetic jet fuels show a reduction in pollutants such as SOx, NOx, particulate matter, and hydrocarbon emissions.[38] It is envisaged that usage of synthetic jet fuels will increase air quality around airports which will be particularly advantageous at inner city airports.[39]

Qatar Airways became the first airline to operate a commercial flight on a 50:50 blend of synthetic Gas to Liquid (GTL) jet fuel and conventional jet fuel. The natural gas derived synthetic kerosene for the six-hour flight from London to Doha came from Shell's GTL plant in Bintulu, Malaysia.[40]
The world's first passenger aircraft flight to use only synthetic jet fuel was from Lanseria International Airport to Cape Town International Airport on September 22, 2010. The fuel was developed by Sasol.[41]
Chemist Heather Willauer is leading a team of researchers at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory who are developing a process to make jet fuel from seawater. The technology requires an input of electrical energy to separate carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrogen (H2) gas from seawater using an iron-based catalyst, followed by an oligomerization step wherein carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen are recombined into long chain hydrocarbons, using zeolite as the catalyst. The technology is expected to be deployed in the 2020s by U.S. Navy warships, especially nuclear-powered aircraft carriers.[42][43][44][45][46][47]

A team of NCSU scientists and engineers says it has developed a biofuels technology capable of converting fat - including lipids from dead chickens, hogs, cattle and fish - into fuel for commercial airliners and fighter jets. The technology – called Centia™, which is derived from "crudus potentia," or "green power" in Latin – is "100 percent green," as no petroleum-derived products are added to the process. Centia™ can also be used to make additives for cold-weather biodiesel fuels and holds the potential to fuel automobiles that currently run on gasoline. NC State received provisional patents to use the process to convert fats into jet fuel or additives for cold-weather biodiesel fuels. The technology has been licensed by Diversified Energy Corp., a privately held Arizona company specializing in the development of advanced alternative and renewable energy technologies and projects. Dr. William Roberts, professor of mechanical and aerospace engineering and director of the Applied Energy Research Laboratory at NC State, developed the biofuels process with NC State’s Dr. Henry Lamb, associate professor of chemical and biomolecular engineering; Dr. Larry Stikeleather, professor of biological and agricultural engineering; and Tim Turner of Turner Engineering in Carrboro, N.C. Roberts says that besides being "100 percent green," the new technology has some key advantages over other biofuel projects. "We can take virtually any lipid-based feedstock, or raw material with a fat source – including what is perceived as low-quality feedstock like cooking grease – and turn it into virtually any fuel," Roberts says. "Using low-quality feedstock is typically 30 percent less costly than using corn or canola oils to make fuel. And we’re not competing directly with the food supply, like ethanol-based fuels that are made from corn." The fuel created by the new process also burns cleaner, so it’s better for the environment, Roberts says. There is no soot or particulate matter associated with fuel from fats. Further, Roberts says, the Centia™ process puts to use what other biodiesel processes throw away. Converting feedstock into fuel produces a low-value commodity – glycerol – as a by-product. Rather than discarding glycerol as waste like most biodiesel plants do, the NC State engineers’ process burns glycerol cleanly and efficiently to provide some of the process’ requisite high temperatures. "Instead of composting the glycerol as waste, we use it as an integral part of the fuel-making process," Roberts said. It really does take a rocket scientist to make jet fuel, especially out of oils or agricultural crops, Roberts says. The physical and chemical properties of traditional biodiesel fuels – their combustion characteristics and viscosity, for example – don’t match the stringent requirements required of jet fuels, making biodiesel unacceptable for the task. "Jet fuel travels at 25,000 to 35,000 feet where temperatures can reach 70 degrees below zero Fahrenheit, so it needs to flow better in cold temperatures," Roberts says. The Centia™ process comprises four steps, Roberts explains. First, the engineers use high temperatures and high water pressure to strip off the so-called free fatty acids from the accumulated feedstock of oils and fats, or triglycerides. Next, the engineers place the free fatty acids in a reactor to perform the decarboxylation step; that is, carbon dioxide is taken off the free fatty acids. Depending on the feedstock used, the scientists are left with alkanes, or straight-chain hydrocarbons of either 15 or 17 carbon atoms. "After these first two steps, which are always the same no matter which fuel you want, we can make any fuel we want to make," Roberts says. "In the last two steps, we can change the recipe based on the fuel output desired." In the last two steps, the engineers break up the straight chains into molecules with branches, making them more compact and changing their chemical and physical characteristics. Jet fuel and biodiesel fuel require a mixture of molecules with between 10 and 14 carbon atoms, while gasoline requires only eight carbon atoms, so the engineers can control the process to elicit exactly the type of fuel they desire. Finally, the engineers make some other chemical tweaks to create the desired fuel. Also, the glycerol by-product is burned off to provide heat for the various processes involved. "We produce one-and-a-half billion gallons of animal fats annually, which is about half of the amount of vegetable oil produced yearly," Roberts said. "Animal fats are harder to work with, but cheaper. Last year, for the first time ever, fuel costs in the aviation industry exceeded labor costs. We think the aviation industry is keen on finding alternatives to petroleum-based jet fuel." - See more at: http://www.thefishsite.com/fishnews/....tRyCo1Cn.dpuf