David
Fri December 20, 2002 4:41pm
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The guided missile frigat
The guided missile frigate makes an approach on the aircraft carrier USS Kitty Hawk (CV 63) while preparing for a scheduled replenishment at sea (RAS). Replenishment operations are conducted while underway between ship in order to transfer fuel and supplies during extended periods at sea. Kitty Hawk and her embarked Carrier Air Wing Five (CVW-5) is currently underway providing a forward presence in the Asian Pacific area of operation, while conducting scheduled training and exercises with regional allies. Kitty Hawk is the Navy?s only permanently forward-deployed aircraft carrier and is home ported in Yokosuka, Japan. US Navy Photo by Photographer?s Mate 3rd Class Todd Frantom.
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David
Sat January 4, 2003 5:02pm
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The Allies Take Mandalay
The Allies Take Mandalay - March 20, 1945
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David
Thu January 16, 2003 10:39am
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AH-64 Apache
Function: Fire support and security for forward and rear area forces, point target/anti-armor, anti-helicopter, armed escort, supporting arms control and coordination, point and limited area air defense from enemy fixed-wing aircraft, armed and visual reconnaissance.
History: Apache production began in 1982 and the first unit was deployed in 1986. As of November 1993, 807 Apaches were delivered to the Army. The last Army Apache delivery is scheduled for December 1995. Thirty-three attack battalions are deployed and ready for combat. The Army is procuring a total of 824 Apaches to support a new force structure of 25 battalions with 24 Apaches for each unit (16 Active; two Reserve; seven National Guard) under the Aviation Restructure Initiative. The Apache has been sold to Israel, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, the UAE, and Greece.
Description: The Boeing (McDonnell Douglas) (formerly Hughes) AH-64A Apache is the Army's primary attack helicopter. It is a quick-reacting, airborne weapon system that can fight close and deep to destroy, disrupt, or delay enemy forces. The Apache is designed to fight and survive during the day, night, and in adverse weather throughout the world. The principal mission of the Apache is the destruction of high-value targets with the HELLFIRE missile. It is also capable of employing a 30MM M230 chain gun and Hydra 70 (2.75 inch) rockets that are lethal against a wide variety of targets. The Apache has a full range of aircraft survivability equipment and has the ability to withstand hits from rounds up to 23MM in critical areas.
The AH-64 Apache is a twin-engine, four bladed, multi-mission attack helicopter designed as a highly stable aerial weapons-delivery platform. It is designed to fight and survive during the day, night, and in adverse weather throughout the world. With a tandem-seated crew consisting of the pilot, located in the rear cockpit position and the co-pilot gunner (CPG), located in the front position, the Apache is self-deployable, highly survivable and delivers a lethal array of battlefield armaments. The Apache features a Target Acquisition Designation Sight (TADS) and a Pilot Night Vision Sensor (PNVS) which enables the crew to navigate and conduct precision attacks in day, night and adverse weather conditions. The Apache can carry up to 16 Hellfire laser designated missiles. With a range of over 8000 meters, the Hellfire is used primarily for the destruction of tanks, armored vehicles and other hard material targets. The Apache can also deliver 76, 2.75" folding fin aerial rockets for use against enemy personnel, light armor vehicles and other soft-skinned targets. Rounding out the Apache?s deadly punch are 1,200 rounds of ammunition for its Area Weapons System (AWS), 30MM Automatic Gun.
Powered by two General Electric gas turbine engines rated at 1890 shaft horsepower each, the Apache?s maximum gross weight is 17,650 pounds which allows for a cruise airspeed of 145 miles per hour and a flight endurance of over three hours. The AH-64 can be configured with an external 230-gallon fuel tank to extend its range on attack missions, or it can be configured with up to four 230-gallon fuel tanks for ferrying/self-deployment missions. The combat radius of the AH-64 is approximately 150 kilometers. The combat radius with one external 230-gallon fuel tank installed is approximately 300 kilometers [radii are temperature, PA, fuel burn rate and airspeed dependent]. The AH-64 is air transportable in the C-5, C-141 and C-17.
An on-board video recorder has the capability of recording up to 72 minutes of either the pilot or CPG selected video. It is an invaluable tool for damage assessment and reconnaissance. The Apache's navigation equipment consists of a doppler navigation system, and most aircraft are equipped with a GPS receiver.
The Apache has state-of-the-art optics that provide the capability to select from three different target acquisition sensors. These sensors are
- Day TV. Views images during day and low light levels, black and white.
- TADS FLIR. Views thermal images, real world and magnified, during day, night and adverse weather.
- DVO. Views real world, full color, and magnified images during daylight and dusk conditions.
The Apache has four articulating weapons pylons, two on either side of the aircraft, on which weapons or external fuel tanks can be mounted. The aircraft has a LRF/D. This is used to designate for the Hellfire missile system as well as provide range to target information for the fire control computer's calculations of ballistic solutions.
Threat identification through the FLIR system is extremely difficult. Although the AH-64 crew can easily find the heat signature of a vehicle, it may not be able to determine friend or foe. Forward looking infrared detects the difference in the emission of heat in objects. On a hot day, the ground may reflect or emit more heat than the suspected target. In this case, the environment will be "hot" and the target will be "cool." As the air cools at night, the target may lose or emit heat at a lower rate than the surrounding environment. At some point the emission of heat from both the target and the surrounding environment may be equal. This is IR crossover and makes target acquisition/detection difficult to impossible. IR crossover occurs most often when the environment is wet. This is because the water in the air creates a buffer in the emissivity of objects. This limitation is present in all systems that use FLIR for target acquisition.
Low cloud ceilings may not allow the Hellfire seeker enough time to lock onto its target or may cause it to break lock after acquisition. At extended ranges, the pilot may have to consider the ceiling to allow time for the seeker to steer the weapon onto the target. Pilot night vision sensor cannot detect wires or other small obstacles.
Overwater operations severely degrade navigation systems not upgraded with embedded GPS. Although fully capable of operating in marginal weather, attack helicopter capabilities are seriously degraded in conditions below a 500-foot ceiling and visibility less than 3 km. Because of the Hellfire missile's trajectory, ceilings below 500 feet require the attack aircraft to get too close to the intended target to avoid missile loss. Below 3 km visibility, the attack aircraft is vulnerable to enemy ADA systems. Some obscurants can prevent the laser energy from reaching the target; they can also hide the target from the incoming munitions seeker. Dust, haze, rain, snow and other particulate matter may limit visibility and affect sensors. The Hellfire remote designating crew may offset a maximum of 60 degrees from the gun to target line and must not position their aircraft within a +30-degree safety fan from the firing aircraft.
The Apache fully exploits the vertical dimension of the battlefield. Aggressive terrain flight techniques allow the commander to rapidly place the ATKHB at the decisive place at the optimum time. Typically, the area of operations for Apache is the entire corps or divisional sector. Attack helicopters move across the battlefield at speeds in excess of 3 kilometers per minute. Typical planning airspeeds are 100 to 120 knots during daylight and 80 to 100 knots at night. Speeds during marginal weather are reduced commensurate with prevailing conditions. The Apache can attack targets up to 150 km across the FLOT. If greater depth is required, the addition of ERFS tanks can further extend the AH-64's range with a corresponding reduction in Hellfire missile carrying capacity (four fewer Hellfire missiles for each ERFS tank installed).
The Russian-developed Mi-24 HIND is the Apache's closest couterpart. The Russians have deployed significant numbers of HINDs in Europe and have exported the HIND to many third world countries. The Russians have also developed the KA-50 HOKUM as their next generation attack helicopter. The Italian A-129 Mangusta is the nearest NATO counterpart to the Apache. The Germans and French are co-developing the PAH-2 Tiger attack helicopter, which has many of the capabilities of the Apache.
The AH-64A: The AH-64 fleet consists of two aircraft models, the AH-64A and the newer Longbow Apache (LBA), AH-64D. AH-64A model full-scale production began in 1983 and now over 800 aircraft have been delivered to the U.S. Army and other NATO Allies. The U.S. Army plans to remanufacture its entire AH-64A Apache fleet to the AH-64D configuration over the next decade. The AH-64A fleet exceeded one million flight hours in 1997, and the median age of today's fleet is 9 years and 1,300 flight hours.
The AH-64A proved its capabilities in action during both Operation Restore Hope and Operation Desert Storm. Apache helicopters played a key role in the 1989 action in Panama, where much of its activity was at night, when the AH-64's advanced sensors and sighting systems were effective against Panamanian government forces.
Apache helicopters also played a major role in the liberation of Kuwait. On 20 November 1990, the 11th Aviation Brigade was alerted for deployment to Southwest Asia from Storck Barracks in Illesheim Germany. The first elements arrived in theater 24 November 1990. By 15 January 1991 the unit had moved 147 helicopters, 325 vehicles and 1,476 soldiers to the region. The Apache helicopters of the Brigade destroyed more than 245 enemy vehicles with no losses.
During Operation Desert Storm, AH-64s were credited with destroying more than 500 tanks plus hundreds of additional armored personnel carriers, trucks and other vehicles. They also were used to destroy vital early warning radar sites, an action that opened the U.N. coalition's battle plan. Apaches also demonstrated the ability to perform when called upon, logging thousands of combat hours at readiness rates in excess of 85 percent during the Gulf War.
While recovery was ongoing, additional elements of the 11th Aviation Brigade began the next chapter of involvement in the region. On 24 April 1991 the 6th Squadron, 6th Cavalry?s 18 AH-64 helicopters began a self-deployment to Southwest Asia. The Squadron provided aerial security to a 3,000 square kilometer region in Northern Iraq as part of the Combined Task Force of Operation Provide Comfort.
And the AH-64A Apache helped to keep the peace in Bosnia. April of 1996 saw the beginning of the 11th Regiment?s involvement in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Elements of 6-6 Cavalry served as a part of Task Force Eagle under 1st Armored Division for 7 months. In October of 1996, Task Force 11, consisting of the Regimental Headquarters, 2-6 Cavalry, 2-1 Aviation and 7-159 Aviation (AVIM) deployed to Bosnia-Herzegovina in support of Operation Joint Endeavor/Operation Joint Guard for eight months. In June of 1998 the Regimental Headquarters, 6-6 Cav and elements of 5-158 Aviation were again deployed to Bosnia-Herzegovina in support of Operations Joint Guard and Joint Forge for 5 months. The AH-64A?s advanced sensors and sighting systems proved effective in removing the cover of darkness from anti-government forces.
Army National Guard units in North and South Carolina, Florida, Texas, Arizona, Utah and Idaho also fly Apache helicopters. The Army has fielded combat-ready AH-64A units in the United States, West Germany and in Korea, where they play a major role in achieving the US Army's security missions.
By late 1996, McDonnell Douglas Helicopters delivered 937 AH-64A Apaches -- 821 to the U.S. Army and 116 to international customers, including Egypt, Greece, Israel, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.
The Apache is clearly one of the most dynamic and important programs in aviation and the Army, but it is not without limitations. Due to the possibility of surging the engines, pilots have been instructed not to fire rockets from in-board stations. According to current doctrine, they are to fire no more than pairs with two outboard launchers every three seconds, or fire with only one outboard launcher installed without restrictions (ripples permitted). These are the only conditions permitted. Other firing conditions will be required to be approved via a System Safety Risk Assessment (SSRA).
The improvement of aircraft systems troubleshooting is a high priority issue for O&S Cost reduction. Because of funding cuts, the level of contractor support to the field has been reduced. This results in higher costs in no fault found removals, maintenance man hours, and aircraft down time. The Apache PM, US Army Aviation Logistics School, and Boeing are currently undertaking several initiatives. Upgrading and improving the soldier's ability to quickly and accurately fault isolate the Apache weapons system is and will continue to be an O&S priority until all issues are resolved.
Prime Vendor Support (PVS) for the entire fleet of AH-64s is a pilot program for the Army, and may become a pilot program for the Department of Defense. PVS will place virtually all of Apache's wholesale logistic responsibility under a single contract. The Apache flying hour program will provide upfront funding for spares, repairables, contractor technical experts, and reliability improvements. Starting at the flight line there will be contractor expert technicians with advanced troubleshooting capability assigned to each Apache Battalion. At the highest level, PVS represents a single contractor focal point for spares and repairs. The intent is to break the current budget and requirements cycle that has Apache at 67% supply availability with several thousand lines at zero balance.
Modernization Through Spares (MTS) is a spares/component improvement strategy applied throughout the acquisition life cycle and is based on technology insertion to enhance systems and extend useful life while reducing costs. The MTS initiative seeks to leverage current procurement funds and modernize individual system spares thereby incrementally improving these systems. MTS is accomplished via the "spares" acquisition process. MTS, a subset of acquisition reform, seeks to improve an end item's spare components. The emphasis is on form, fit and function, allowing a supplier greater design and manufacturing flexibility to exploit technology used in the commercial marketplace.
Apache MTS focuses on the insertion of the latest technology into the design and manufacture of select spares. This is to be accomplished without government research and development (R&D) funds, but rather, uses industry investment. Industry, in turn, recoups this investment through the sale of improved hardware via long term contracts.
Modernization efforts continue to improve the performance envelope of the AH-64A while reducing the cost of ownership. Major modernization efforts within the AH-64A fleet are funded and on schedule. GG Rotor modifications were finished in April 1998,, and future improvements such as a Second Generation FLIR, a High Frequency Non-Line of Sight NOE radio, and an internal fully crashworthy auxiliary fuel tank are all on the verge of becoming a reality for the Apache.
The Aviation Mission Planning System (AMPS) and the Data Transfer Cartridge (DTC) are tools for the Embedded Global Positioning Inertial Navigation Unit (EGI) equipped AH-64A aircraft that allow aircrews to plan missions and download the information to a DTC installed in the Data Transfer Receptacle (DTR). This saves the pilots a lot of "fat fingering" and eliminates the worry of everyone being on the same "sheet of music". Other features of the DTC include; saving waypoints and targets and troubleshooting. The EGI program is a Tri-service program with the Army, Air Force and Navy.
??General Characteristics, AH-64 Apache
Manufacturers:
Boeing McDonnell Douglas Helicopter Systems (Mesa, AZ)
General Electric (Lynn, MA)
Martin Marietta (Orlando, FL)
Power Plant:
Two T700-GE-701Cs
Length:
58.17 feet (17.73 meters)
Height:
15.24 feet (4.64 meters)
Wingspan:
17.15 feet (5.227 meters)
Weight:
11,800 pounds empty
15,075 pounds (6838 kilograms) loaded
Maximum Speed:
153 knots (284 kph)
Range:
1,900 kilometers
Crew:
Two: pilot and copilot/gunner
Armament:
M230 33mm gun
70mm (2.75 inch) Hydra-70 folding-fin aerial rockets
AGM-114 Hellfire anti-tank missiles
AGM-122 Sidearm anti-radar missile
AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles
Introduction Date:
1986
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David
Thu January 16, 2003 10:39am
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CH-53E Super Stallion
Function: Transportation of heavy equipment and supplies during the ship-to-shore movement of an amphibious assault and during subsequent operations ashore.
History: Derived from an engineering change proposal to the twin-engine CH-53D helicopter, the CH-53E has consistently proven its worth to the Fleet commanders with its versatility and range. With four and one half hours' endurance, the Super Stallion can move more equipment over rugged terrain in bad weather and at night. During Operation Eastern Exit two CH-53Es launched from amphibious ships and flew 463 nautical miles (532.45 miles) at night, refueling twice enroute, to rescue American and foreign allies from the American Embassy in the civil war-torn capital of Mogadishu, Somalia in January of 1990. Two CH-53Es rescued Air Force Capt. Scott O'Grady in Bosnia in June 1995.
Description: The CH-53E is a follow-on for its predecessor, the CH-53D. Improvements include the addition of a third engine to give the aircraft the ability to lift the majority of the Fleet Marine Force's equipment, a dual point cargo hook system, improved main rotor blades, and composite tail rotor blades. A dual digital automatic flight control system and engine anti-ice system give the aircraft an all-weather capability. The helicopter seats 37 passengers in its normal configuration and has provisions to carry 55 passengers with centerline seats installed. With the dual point hook systems, it can carry external loads at increased airspeeds due to the stability achieved with the dual point system.
As the Marine Corps' heavy lift helicopter designed for the transportation of material and supplies, the CH-53E is compatible with most amphibious class ships and is carried routinely aboard LHA (Landing, Helicopter, Assault: an amphibious assault ship), LPH (Landing Platform, Helicopter: an amphibious assault ship) and now LHD (Landing, Helicopter, Dock: an amphibious assault ship) type ships. The helicopter is capable of lifting 16 tons (14.5 metric tons) at sea level, transporting the load 50 nautical miles (57.5 miles) and returning. A typical load would be a 16,000 pound (7264 kilogram) M198 howitzer or a 26,000 pound (11,804 kilogram) Light Armored Vehicle. The aircraft also can retrieve downed aircraft including another CH-53E. The 53E is equipped with a refueling probe and can be refueled in flight giving the helicopter indefinite range.
General Characteristics, CH-53E Super Stallion
Contractor:
Sikorsky Aircraft
Unit Cost:
$26.1 million
Power Plant:
Three General Electric T64-GE-416 turboshaft engines producing 4380 shaft horsepower each
Thrust:
1,770 horsepower
Length:
99 feet 5 inches (2.64 meters)
Height:
28 feet 4 inches (.81 meters)
Rotor Diameter:
79 feet (24.07 meters)
Maximum Take-off Weight:
Internal load: 69,750 pounds (31,666 kilograms)
External load: 73,500 pounds (33,369 kilograms)
Speed:
172.5 mph (150 knots)
Range:
Without refueling: 621 miles (540 nautical miles)
With aerial refueling: indefinite
Crew:
Three
Armament:
Two XM-218 .50 caliber machine guns
Introduction Date:
June 1981
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David
Thu January 16, 2003 6:05pm
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A-10/OA-10 Thunderbolt II
Function: The A-10 and OA-10 Thunderbolt IIs are the first Air Force aircraft specially designed for close air support of ground forces. They are simple, effective and survivable twin-engine jet aircraft that can be used against all ground targets, including tanks and other armored vehicles.
History: The first production A-10A was delivered to Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, AZ, in October 1975. It was designed specially for the close air support mission and had the ability to combine large military loads, long loiter and wide combat radius, which proved to be vital assets to America and its allies during Operation Desert Storm. In the Gulf War, A-10s, with a mission capable rate of 95.7 percent, flew 8,100 sorties and launched 90 percent of the AGM-65 Maverick missiles.
Description: The A-10/OA-10 have excellent maneuverability at low air speeds and altitude, and are highly accurate weapons-delivery platforms. They can loiter near battle areas for extended periods of time and operate under 1,000-foot ceilings (303.3 meters) with 1.5-mile (2.4 kilometers) visibility. Their wide combat radius and short takeoff and landing capability permit operations in and out of locations near front lines. Using night vision goggles, A-10/ OA-10 pilots can conduct their missions during darkness.
Thunderbolt IIs have Night Vision Imaging Systems (NVIS), compatible single-seat cockpits forward of their wings and a large bubble canopy which provides pilots all-around vision. The pilots are encircled by titanium armor that also protects parts of the flight-control system. The redundant primary structural sections allow the aircraft to enjoy better survivability during close air support than did previous aircraft. The aircraft can survive direct hits from armor-piercing and high-explosive projectiles up to 23mm. Their self-sealing fuel cells are protected by internal and external foam. Their redundant hydraulic flight-control systems are backed up by manual systems. This permits pilots to fly and land when hydraulic power is lost.
The Thunderbolt II can be serviced and operated from bases with limited facilities near battle areas. Many of the aircraft's parts are interchangeable left and right, including the engines, main landing gear and vertical stabilizers.
Avionics equipment includes communications, inertial navigation systems, fire control and weapons delivery systems, target penetration aids and night vision goggles. Their weapons delivery systems include head-up displays that indicate airspeed, altitude and dive angle on the windscreen, a low altitude safety and targeting enhancement system (LASTE) which provides constantly computing impact point freefall ordnance delivery; and Pave Penny laser-tracking pods under the fuselage. The aircraft also have armament control panels, and infrared and electronic countermeasures to handle surface-to-air-missile threats.
The Thunderbolt II's 30mm GAU-8/A Gatling gun can fire 3,900 rounds a minute and can defeat an array of ground targets to include tanks. Some of their other equipment includes an inertial navigation system, electronic countermeasures, target penetration aids, self-protection systems, and AGM-65 Maverick and AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles.
?General Characteristics, A-10/OA-10 Thunderbolt II
Contractor:
Fairchild Republic Co.
Unit Cost:
$8.8 million
Power Plant:
Two General Electric TF34-GE-100 turbofans
Thrust:
9,065 pounds each engine
Length:
53 feet, 4 inches (16.16 meters)
Height:
14 feet, 8 inches (4.42 meters)
Wingspan:
57 feet, 6 inches (17.42 meters)
Maximum Take-off Weight:
51,000 pounds (22,950 kilograms)
Speed:
420 mph (Mach 0.56)
Ceiling:
45,000 feet (13,636 meters)
Speed:
565 mph (Mach 0.86) at 25,000 feet (7583.3 meters), with maximum takeoff weight
Load:
Up to 16,000 pounds (7,200 kilograms) of mixed ordnance on eight under-wing and three under-fuselage pylon stations
Range:
800 miles (695 nautical miles)
Armament:
One 30 mm GAU-8/A seven-barrel Gatling gun
Up to 16,000 pounds (7,200 kilograms) of mixed ordnance on eight under-wing and three under-fuselage pylon stations, including 500 pounds (225 kilograms) of retarded bombs, 2,000 pounds (900 kilograms) of general-purpose bombs, incendiary and Rockeye II cluster bombs, combined effects munitions, Maverick missiles and laser-guided/electro-optically guided bombs
Infrared countermeasure flares
Electronic countermeasure chaff
Jammer pods
2.75-inch (6.99 centimeters) rockets
Illumination flares
AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles
Crew:
One
Planned Inventory:
Active force, A-10, 72 and OA-10, 72
Reserve, A-10, 24 and OA-10, 12
ANG, A-10, 64 and OA-10, 30
Date Deployed:
March 1976
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David
Thu January 16, 2003 11:24pm
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Penguin
Function: The Penguin is a helicopter launched anti-ship missile developed for use on Lamps III helicopters and NATO allies.
Description: The Penguin missile has an indirect flight path to target. It is also operated in "fire-and-forget" mode to allow multiple target aqusition. The Penguin is fired from a launcher or a stage weighing approximately 1,100 pounds (500 kilograms).
History: The Penguin was developed by and for the Norwegian Navy. The original Penguin became operational on Norwegian fast attack boats in 1972.
General Characteristics, Penguin Anti-Ship Missile
Contractors:
Kongsberg Vaapenfabrikk (Norway)
Power Plant:
Solid propellant rocket motor and solid propellant booster
Length:
120.48 inches (3.06 meters)
Launch Weight:
847 pounds (385 kilograms)
Diameter:
11.2 inches (28.45 centimeters)
Wingspan:
39 inches (71.12 centimeters)
Range:
21.7 miles (25 nautical miles/35 kilometers)
Speed:
1.2 Mach maximum
Warhead:
265 pounds (120.5 kilograms), semi armor piercing
Guidance System:
Inertial and infrared terminal
Date Deployed:
Fourth quarter 1993
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David
Thu January 16, 2003 11:24pm
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AIM-120 AMRAAM
Function: The AIM-120 advanced medium-range air-to-air missile (AMRAAM) is a new generation air-to-air missile. It has an all-weather, beyond-visual-range capability and is scheduled to be operational beyond 2000. The AMRAAM is being procured for the Air Force, U.S. Navy and America's allies.
Description: The AMRAAM program improves the aerial combat capabilities of U.S. and allied aircraft to meet current and future threat of enemy air-to-air weapons. AMRAAM is compatible with the Air Force F-15, F-16 and developmental F-22; Navy F-14 D/D (R) and F/A-18 C/D; German F-4 and the British Sea Harrier aircraft.
AMRAAM is a follow-on to the AIM-7 Sparrow missile series. The missile is faster, smaller and lighter, and has improved capabilities against low-altitude targets. It incorporates active radar with an inertial reference unit and micro-computer system, which makes the missile less dependent upon the fire-control system of the aircraft. Once the missile closes on a target, its active radar guides it to intercept. This enables the pilot to aim and fire several missiles simultaneously at multiple targets. The pilot may then perform evasive maneuvers while the missiles guide themselves to their targets.
AMRAAM has three variants - AIM-120A/B/C -- operational on U.S. Air Force F-15 and F-16 aircraft.
History: The AMRAAM program completed its conceptual phase in February 1979 when the U.S. Air Force selected two of five competing contractors, Hughes Aircraft Co. and Raytheon Co., to continue into the validation phase.
During the 33-month validation phase the contractors continued missile development by building actual hardware to demonstrate their technological concepts. The program phase concluded in December 1981 after both contractors demonstrated that their flight-test missiles could satisfy Air Force and Navy requirements. The Air Force competitively selected Hughes Aircraft Co.'s Missile System Group, Canoga Park, CA, as the full-scale developer.
During the full-scale development phase, Hughes Aircraft Co. completed missile development and Raytheon was selected as a follower producer. A production contract to both vendors was awarded in 1987. More than 200 of the test missiles were launched during flight tests at Eglin AFB, FL; White Sands Missile Range, NM; and Point Mugu, CA. AMRAAM is combat tested, scoring two kills during Operation Southern Watch, and one kill in Bosnia.
General Characteristics, AIM-120 AMRAAM
Contractors:
Hughes Aircraft Corporation and Raytheon Corporation
Power Plant:
High performance
Length:
143.9 inches (366 centimeters)
Launch Weight:
335 pounds (150.75 kilograms)
Diameter:
7 inches (17.78 centimeters)
Wingspan:
20.7 inches (52.58 centimeters)
Range:
20+ miles (17.38+ nautical miles)
Speed:
Supersonic
Warheads:
Blast fragmentation
Guidance System:
Active radar terminal/inertial midcourse
Date Deployed:
September 1991
Unit Cost:
$386,000
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David
Fri January 17, 2003 6:38pm
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The first production A-10
The first production A-10A was delivered to Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Ariz., in October 1975. It was designed specially for the close air support mission and had the ability to combine large military loads, long loiter and wide combat radius, which proved to be vital assets to America and its allies during Operation Desert Storm. In the Gulf War, A-10s, with a mission capable rate of 95.7 percent, flew 8,100 sorties and launched 90 percent of the AGM-65 Maverick missiles.
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David
Tue February 11, 2003 1:14pm
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Defense Support Program S
Function: Primary mission: Strategic and tactical missile launch detection.
Description: Air Force Space Command-operated Defense Support Program (DSP) satellites are a key part of North America's early warning systems. In their 22,000 miles-plus geosynchronous orbits, DSP satellites help protect the United States and its allies by detecting missile launches, space launches and nuclear detonations.
DSP satellites use an infrared sensor to detect heat from missile and booster plumes against the earth's background. In 1995, a new means of processing DSP data called Attack and Launch Early Reporting to Theater (ALERT) was brought on line. This capability provides improved warning of attack by short-range missiles against U.S. and allied forces overseas.
Numerous improvement projects have enabled DSP to provide accurate, reliable data in the face of evolving missile threats. On-station sensor reliability has provided uninterrupted service well past their design lifetime. Recent technological improvements include enhanced sensor resolution, increased on-board signal-processing capability to improve clutter rejection, and enhanced reliability and survivability improvements. In the 21st century, the Space-Based Infrared System (SBIRS) will replace DSP.
The 21st Space Wing, located at Peterson Air Force Base, Colo., has units that operate DSP satellites and report warning information, via communications links, to the North American Aerospace Defense Command and U.S. Space Command early warning centers within Cheyenne Mountain, located near Colorado Springs, Colo. These centers immediately forward data to various agencies and areas of operations around the world.
The 50th Space Wing at Schriever AFB, Colo., provides command and control support for the satellites.
The Defense Support Program is managed by Space and Missile Systems Center (Air Force Materiel Command), Space Based Infrared System Program office at Los Angeles AFB, Calif. The office is responsible for development and acquisition of the satellites.
Typically, DSP satellites are launched into geosynchronous orbit on a Titan IV booster and inertial upper stage combination. However, one DSP satellite was launched using the space shuttle on mission STS-44 (Nov. 24, 1991).
History: The program came to life with the first launch of a DSP satellite in the early 1970s. Since that time, DSP satellites have provided an uninterrupted early warning capability. The original DSP weighed 2,000 pounds and had 400 watts of power, 2,000 detectors and a design life of 1.25 years. In the 1970s, the satellite was upgraded to meet new mission requirements. As a result, the weight grew to 5,250 pounds, the power to 1,275 watts, the number of detectors increased by threefold to 6,000 and the design life was three years with a goal of five years.
DSP's effectiveness was proven during Desert Storm, when DSP detected the launch of Iraqi Scud missiles and provided warning to civilian populations and coalition forces in Israel and Saudi Arabia.
?General Characteristics, Defense Support Program Satellites
Contractor Team:
Thompson Ramo Woolridge (TRW) and Aerojet Electronics Systems
Power Plant:
Solar arrays generate 1,485 watts
Weight:
5,250 pounds (2,386 kilograms)
Height:
32.8 feet (10 meters) on orbit
28 feet (8.5 meters) at launch
Diameter:
22 feet (6.7 meters) on orbit
13.7 feet (4.2 meters) at launch
Design Life:
Block II/IIA: 7.5 years
Block IIR: 10 years
Orbit Altitude:
22,000 miles (35,200 kilometers)
Date Deployed:
1970
Latest Satellite Block:
Sat 23
Inventory:
Classified
Unit Replacement Cost:
$400 million
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David
Thu January 8, 2004 3:03pm
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9th Army Air Force
Worn from 16 September 1943 to August 1954
The Ninth Air Force began operations on 12 November 1942 by participating in the Allied drive across Egypt and Libya, the Campaign in Tunisia, and the invasion of Sicily and Italy. In addition, they helped prepare for the assault on Normandy and supported operations on the beach. They took part in the drive that carried the Allies across France and culminated in victory over Germany in May 1945. On an ultramarine blue background, the United States Army Air Force star sits above a winged Arabic number nine, which is the unit's designation. Activated 8 April 1942, New Orleans Army Air Base, Louisiana.
Campaigns:
WWI (American theater; Air Combat, Europe-African-Middle East theater; Egypt-Libya; Air Offensive, Europe; Tunisia; Sicily; Naples-Foggia; Normandy; Northern France; Rhineland; Ardennes-Alsace; and Central Europe).
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David
Tue October 5, 2004 2:54am
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Iron Cross, Eisernes Kreu
Iron Cross, Eisernes Kreuz
The history of the Iron Cross dates back to her introduction as a Prussian decoration for merit by King Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia.1813. It was instituted as a direct result of the liberation war against Napoleon. Because of this institution it was more or less a campaign decoration.
After Napoleon defeated the Prussian army in 1807, it was forced to fight for the French cause. Right after Napoleons defeat at Moscow in December 1812, the Prussians resisted their oppressor. To commemorate that fact the Iron Cross was instituted on March 20th 1813. The design came from Karl Friedrich Schinkel, a Prussian architect.
The design was kept very simple. The core was made by a black cross, surrounded by a silver trim. The obverse side had an oak leave in the middle. Below that on the lower arm the year 1813 was placed. The upper arm was gifted with a crowned Royal Cipher ?FW?. The front side would be blank until the original obverse turned to front side in 1838. The decoration was instituted with three grade, the Grosskreuz (Grand Cross) for senior commanders and the 1. Klasse (1st Class) and 2.Klasse (2nd Class) for individual merit in combat. The 1st and 2nd Class crosses had a size of 42mm although examples are known within the sizes 28mm to 42mm. The 2nd Class cross contained an eye welded to the top with which it could be attached to a ribbon. At the backside of the 1sr Class cross two eyes were welded to be able to sew is to the uniform. The ribbon was black with on both sides a white stripe. Non-combatant receivers got the Iron Cross on a white ribbon with two black stripes. The Grand Cross was 62mm in size and was worn on a ribbon around the neck in the same colours.
The Iron Cross was only to be awarded in war times with the goal to replace the peacetime awards. In reality other awards like the Rote Adlerorden (Order of the Red Eagle) and the Pour le M?rite were also awarded.
After the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, the Iron Cross was not to be awarded until the ending of the Franco-Prussian war in 1871. The decoration was re instituted on July 19th 1870 as a campaign award for merit.
The front (original obverse) was kept unchanged, but became once again the obverse. On the renewed front the upper arm got a crown and the Royal Monogram ?W? was placed in the middle. The year 1870 was placed on the lower arm. After the Franco-Prussian War, the Iron Cross again wasn?t awarded until the outbreak of the First World War.
It was again renewed in 1914. The institution date for the new Iron Cross was August 5th 1914. The design was kept the same as the 1870 version, but the date of 1870 was replaced with 1914. The Iron Cross retained her three grades, but this time with a standard size of 42mm. The width of the ribbon could vary between 25mm and 30mm. The construction was unchanged with a blackened iron core surrounded with the silver trim. Because iron and silver became rarer during the war, later crosses were made of alloy and silvered plated trim.
In 1939 the Iron Cross again was renewed, this time as an order of the German Reich. The ribbon now got the Reich?s colours black white and red. In contrary to the old Imperial orders, the Iron Crosses grades all could be awarded regardless the military ranks. Also the Iron Cross became for the first time a real German decoration. Before that is was only awarded to Prussian military. The original symbolic Iron Cross was remained unchanged, but the old Imperial and Royal symbols were replaced by the new Reich symbol of the Swastika. The year was changed to 1939 as the new date of institution.
At the institution date, four grades were instituted, 2nd Class, 1st Class, Knights Cross and Grand Cross. The grades would be further extended during the war years. To commemorate actions of merit from the First World War, both the 1st Class (EK I) and 2nd Class (EK II) crosses could be worn in the form of a new clasp called a ?spange?, worn on a First World War ribbon. To obtain a higher grade, all lower grades had to be obtained first. In some cases EK II and EK I could be obtained at the same time. Even more rarely this also was done with higher grades. It was allowed to wear all grades at the same time, which was not a custom in other countries with comparable orders. Most recipients found the original decoration to be very valuable that they often bought cheaper replica at own costs. The original was mostly kept at home.
A grade in the Iron Cross could be awarded for different reasons. Beside actions of exceptional merit, it could also be obtained for successful military planning, courage in non military actions, exceptional leadership and even for merital actions done by the soldiers under the command of the recipient. The Iron Cross could be obtained by military within the whole Wehrmacht, military from Germany?s allies, but also by uniformed civilians.
After the Second World War the carrying of the Swastika and German World War 2 decorations for military and political activities were forbidden by law. In 1957 this law was changed. Decorations from the Second World War were permitted. The Swastika still is forbidden, but the decorations themselves could be worn again, when the Swastika was removed. Recipients of the Iron Cross got with this possibility their recognition for pure military merit and it lost her political history. To replace lost or broken examples and because many didn?t want to remove the Swastika from their historical item, in 1957 from most former military decorations a special denazified version was produced.
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David
Tue October 5, 2004 2:56am
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Grand Cross of the Iron C
Grand Cross of the Iron Cross,
Grosskreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes
The history of the Iron Cross dates back to her introduction as a Prussian decoration for merit by King Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia.1813. It was instituted as a direct result of the liberation war against Napoleon. Because of this institution it was more or less a campaign decoration.
After Napoleon defeated the Prussian army in 1807, it was forced to fight for the French cause. Right after Napoleons defeat at Moscow in December 1812, the Prussians resisted their oppressor. To commemorate that fact the Iron Cross was instituted on March 20th 1813. The design came from Karl Friedrich Schinkel, a Prussian architect.
The design was kept very simple. The core was made by a black cross, surrounded by a silver trim. The obverse side had an oak leave in the middle. Below that on the lower arm the year 1813 was placed. The upper arm was gifted with a crowned Royal Cipher ?FW?. The front side would be blank until the original obverse turned to front side in 1838. The decoration was instituted with three grade, the Grosskreuz (Grand Cross) for senior commanders and the 1. Klasse (1st Class) and 2.Klasse (2nd Class) for individual merit in combat. The 1st and 2nd Class crosses had a size of 42mm although examples are known within the sizes 28mm to 42mm. The 2nd Class cross contained an eye welded to the top with which it could be attached to a ribbon. At the backside of the 1sr Class cross two eyes were welded to be able to sew is to the uniform. The ribbon was black with on both sides a white stripe. Non-combatant receivers got the Iron Cross on a white ribbon with two black stripes. The Grand Cross was 62mm in size and was worn on a ribbon around the neck in the same colours.
The Iron Cross was only to be awarded in war times with the goal to replace the peacetime awards. In reality other awards like the Rote Adlerorden (Order of the Red Eagle) and the Pour le M?rite were also awarded.
After the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, the Iron Cross was not to be awarded until the ending of the Franco-Prussian war in 1871. The decoration was re instituted on July 19th 1870 as a campaign award for merit.
The front (original obverse) was kept unchanged, but became once again the obverse. On the renewed front the upper arm got a crown and the Royal Monogram ?W? was placed in the middle. The year 1870 was placed on the lower arm. After the Franco-Prussian War, the Iron Cross again wasn?t awarded until the outbreak of the First World War.
It was again renewed in 1914. The institution date for the new Iron Cross was August 5th 1914. The design was kept the same as the 1870 version, but the date of 1870 was replaced with 1914. The Iron Cross retained her three grades, but this time with a standard size of 42mm. The width of the ribbon could vary between 25mm and 30mm. The construction was unchanged with a blackened iron core surrounded with the silver trim. Because iron and silver became rarer during the war, later crosses were made of alloy and silvered plated trim.
In 1939 the Iron Cross again was renewed, this time as an order of the German Reich. The ribbon now got the Reich?s colours black white and red. In contrary to the old Imperial orders, the Iron Crosses grades all could be awarded regardless the military ranks. Also the Iron Cross became for the first time a real German decoration. Before that is was only awarded to Prussian military. The original symbolic Iron Cross was remained unchanged, but the old Imperial and Royal symbols were replaced by the new Reich symbol of the Swastika. The year was changed to 1939 as the new date of institution.
At the institution date, four grades were instituted, 2nd Class, 1st Class, Knights Cross and Grand Cross. The grades would be further extended during the war years. To commemorate actions of merit from the First World War, both the 1st Class (EK I) and 2nd Class (EK II) crosses could be worn in the form of a new clasp called a ?spange?, worn on a First World War ribbon. To obtain a higher grade, all lower grades had to be obtained first. In some cases EK II and EK I could be obtained at the same time. Even more rarely this also was done with higher grades. It was allowed to wear all grades at the same time, which was not a custom in other countries with comparable orders. Most recipients found the original decoration to be very valuable that they often bought cheaper replica at own costs. The original was mostly kept at home.
A grade in the Iron Cross could be awarded for different reasons. Beside actions of exceptional merit, it could also be obtained for successful military planning, courage in non military actions, exceptional leadership and even for merital actions done by the soldiers under the command of the recipient. The Iron Cross could be obtained by military within the whole Wehrmacht, military from Germany?s allies, but also by uniformed civilians.
After the Second World War the carrying of the Swastika and German World War 2 decorations for military and political activities were forbidden by law. In 1957 this law was changed. Decorations from the Second World War were permitted. The Swastika still is forbidden, but the decorations themselves could be worn again, when the Swastika was removed. Recipients of the Iron Cross got with this possibility their recognition for pure military merit and it lost her political history. To replace lost or broken examples and because many didn?t want to remove the Swastika from their historical item, in 1957 from most former military decorations a special denazified version was produced.
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David
Tue October 5, 2004 3:00am
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Knights Cross Golden Oakl
Knights Cross Golden Oakleaves with Swords and Diamonds ,
Ritterkreuz, Goldener Eichenlaub mit Schwertern und Brillianten
The history of the Iron Cross dates back to her introduction as a Prussian decoration for merit by King Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia.1813. It was instituted as a direct result of the liberation war against Napoleon. Because of this institution it was more or less a campaign decoration.
After Napoleon defeated the Prussian army in 1807, it was forced to fight for the French cause. Right after Napoleons defeat at Moscow in December 1812, the Prussians resisted their oppressor. To commemorate that fact the Iron Cross was instituted on March 20th 1813. The design came from Karl Friedrich Schinkel, a Prussian architect.
The design was kept very simple. The core was made by a black cross, surrounded by a silver trim. The obverse side had an oak leave in the middle. Below that on the lower arm the year 1813 was placed. The upper arm was gifted with a crowned Royal Cipher ?FW?. The front side would be blank until the original obverse turned to front side in 1838. The decoration was instituted with three grade, the Grosskreuz (Grand Cross) for senior commanders and the 1. Klasse (1st Class) and 2.Klasse (2nd Class) for individual merit in combat. The 1st and 2nd Class crosses had a size of 42mm although examples are known within the sizes 28mm to 42mm. The 2nd Class cross contained an eye welded to the top with which it could be attached to a ribbon. At the backside of the 1sr Class cross two eyes were welded to be able to sew is to the uniform. The ribbon was black with on both sides a white stripe. Non-combatant receivers got the Iron Cross on a white ribbon with two black stripes. The Grand Cross was 62mm in size and was worn on a ribbon around the neck in the same colours.
The Iron Cross was only to be awarded in war times with the goal to replace the peacetime awards. In reality other awards like the Rote Adlerorden (Order of the Red Eagle) and the Pour le M?rite were also awarded.
After the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, the Iron Cross was not to be awarded until the ending of the Franco-Prussian war in 1871. The decoration was re instituted on July 19th 1870 as a campaign award for merit.
The front (original obverse) was kept unchanged, but became once again the obverse. On the renewed front the upper arm got a crown and the Royal Monogram ?W? was placed in the middle. The year 1870 was placed on the lower arm. After the Franco-Prussian War, the Iron Cross again wasn?t awarded until the outbreak of the First World War.
It was again renewed in 1914. The institution date for the new Iron Cross was August 5th 1914. The design was kept the same as the 1870 version, but the date of 1870 was replaced with 1914. The Iron Cross retained her three grades, but this time with a standard size of 42mm. The width of the ribbon could vary between 25mm and 30mm. The construction was unchanged with a blackened iron core surrounded with the silver trim. Because iron and silver became rarer during the war, later crosses were made of alloy and silvered plated trim.
In 1939 the Iron Cross again was renewed, this time as an order of the German Reich. The ribbon now got the Reich?s colours black white and red. In contrary to the old Imperial orders, the Iron Crosses grades all could be awarded regardless the military ranks. Also the Iron Cross became for the first time a real German decoration. Before that is was only awarded to Prussian military. The original symbolic Iron Cross was remained unchanged, but the old Imperial and Royal symbols were replaced by the new Reich symbol of the Swastika. The year was changed to 1939 as the new date of institution.
At the institution date, four grades were instituted, 2nd Class, 1st Class, Knights Cross and Grand Cross. The grades would be further extended during the war years. To commemorate actions of merit from the First World War, both the 1st Class (EK I) and 2nd Class (EK II) crosses could be worn in the form of a new clasp called a ?spange?, worn on a First World War ribbon. To obtain a higher grade, all lower grades had to be obtained first. In some cases EK II and EK I could be obtained at the same time. Even more rarely this also was done with higher grades. It was allowed to wear all grades at the same time, which was not a custom in other countries with comparable orders. Most recipients found the original decoration to be very valuable that they often bought cheaper replica at own costs. The original was mostly kept at home.
A grade in the Iron Cross could be awarded for different reasons. Beside actions of exceptional merit, it could also be obtained for successful military planning, courage in non military actions, exceptional leadership and even for merital actions done by the soldiers under the command of the recipient. The Iron Cross could be obtained by military within the whole Wehrmacht, military from Germany?s allies, but also by uniformed civilians.
After the Second World War the carrying of the Swastika and German World War 2 decorations for military and political activities were forbidden by law. In 1957 this law was changed. Decorations from the Second World War were permitted. The Swastika still is forbidden, but the decorations themselves could be worn again, when the Swastika was removed. Recipients of the Iron Cross got with this possibility their recognition for pure military merit and it lost her political history. To replace lost or broken examples and because many didn?t want to remove the Swastika from their historical item, in 1957 from most former military decorations a special denazified version was produced.
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David
Tue October 5, 2004 3:04am
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Knights Cross Oakleaves,
Knights Cross Oakleaves, Swords and Diamonds
Ritterkreuz, Eichenlaub, Schwertern und Brillianten
The history of the Iron Cross dates back to her introduction as a Prussian decoration for merit by King Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia.1813. It was instituted as a direct result of the liberation war against Napoleon. Because of this institution it was more or less a campaign decoration.
After Napoleon defeated the Prussian army in 1807, it was forced to fight for the French cause. Right after Napoleons defeat at Moscow in December 1812, the Prussians resisted their oppressor. To commemorate that fact the Iron Cross was instituted on March 20th 1813. The design came from Karl Friedrich Schinkel, a Prussian architect.
The design was kept very simple. The core was made by a black cross, surrounded by a silver trim. The obverse side had an oak leave in the middle. Below that on the lower arm the year 1813 was placed. The upper arm was gifted with a crowned Royal Cipher ?FW?. The front side would be blank until the original obverse turned to front side in 1838. The decoration was instituted with three grade, the Grosskreuz (Grand Cross) for senior commanders and the 1. Klasse (1st Class) and 2.Klasse (2nd Class) for individual merit in combat. The 1st and 2nd Class crosses had a size of 42mm although examples are known within the sizes 28mm to 42mm. The 2nd Class cross contained an eye welded to the top with which it could be attached to a ribbon. At the backside of the 1sr Class cross two eyes were welded to be able to sew is to the uniform. The ribbon was black with on both sides a white stripe. Non-combatant receivers got the Iron Cross on a white ribbon with two black stripes. The Grand Cross was 62mm in size and was worn on a ribbon around the neck in the same colours.
The Iron Cross was only to be awarded in war times with the goal to replace the peacetime awards. In reality other awards like the Rote Adlerorden (Order of the Red Eagle) and the Pour le M?rite were also awarded.
After the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, the Iron Cross was not to be awarded until the ending of the Franco-Prussian war in 1871. The decoration was re instituted on July 19th 1870 as a campaign award for merit.
The front (original obverse) was kept unchanged, but became once again the obverse. On the renewed front the upper arm got a crown and the Royal Monogram ?W? was placed in the middle. The year 1870 was placed on the lower arm. After the Franco-Prussian War, the Iron Cross again wasn?t awarded until the outbreak of the First World War.
It was again renewed in 1914. The institution date for the new Iron Cross was August 5th 1914. The design was kept the same as the 1870 version, but the date of 1870 was replaced with 1914. The Iron Cross retained her three grades, but this time with a standard size of 42mm. The width of the ribbon could vary between 25mm and 30mm. The construction was unchanged with a blackened iron core surrounded with the silver trim. Because iron and silver became rarer during the war, later crosses were made of alloy and silvered plated trim.
In 1939 the Iron Cross again was renewed, this time as an order of the German Reich. The ribbon now got the Reich?s colours black white and red. In contrary to the old Imperial orders, the Iron Crosses grades all could be awarded regardless the military ranks. Also the Iron Cross became for the first time a real German decoration. Before that is was only awarded to Prussian military. The original symbolic Iron Cross was remained unchanged, but the old Imperial and Royal symbols were replaced by the new Reich symbol of the Swastika. The year was changed to 1939 as the new date of institution.
At the institution date, four grades were instituted, 2nd Class, 1st Class, Knights Cross and Grand Cross. The grades would be further extended during the war years. To commemorate actions of merit from the First World War, both the 1st Class (EK I) and 2nd Class (EK II) crosses could be worn in the form of a new clasp called a ?spange?, worn on a First World War ribbon. To obtain a higher grade, all lower grades had to be obtained first. In some cases EK II and EK I could be obtained at the same time. Even more rarely this also was done with higher grades. It was allowed to wear all grades at the same time, which was not a custom in other countries with comparable orders. Most recipients found the original decoration to be very valuable that they often bought cheaper replica at own costs. The original was mostly kept at home.
A grade in the Iron Cross could be awarded for different reasons. Beside actions of exceptional merit, it could also be obtained for successful military planning, courage in non military actions, exceptional leadership and even for merital actions done by the soldiers under the command of the recipient. The Iron Cross could be obtained by military within the whole Wehrmacht, military from Germany?s allies, but also by uniformed civilians.
After the Second World War the carrying of the Swastika and German World War 2 decorations for military and political activities were forbidden by law. In 1957 this law was changed. Decorations from the Second World War were permitted. The Swastika still is forbidden, but the decorations themselves could be worn again, when the Swastika was removed. Recipients of the Iron Cross got with this possibility their recognition for pure military merit and it lost her political history. To replace lost or broken examples and because many didn?t want to remove the Swastika from their historical item, in 1957 from most former military decorations a special denazified version was produced.
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David
Tue October 5, 2004 3:05am
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Knights Cross with Oaklea
Knights Cross with Oakleaves and Swords,
Ritterkreuz mit Eichenlaub und Schwertern
The history of the Iron Cross dates back to her introduction as a Prussian decoration for merit by King Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia.1813. It was instituted as a direct result of the liberation war against Napoleon. Because of this institution it was more or less a campaign decoration.
After Napoleon defeated the Prussian army in 1807, it was forced to fight for the French cause. Right after Napoleons defeat at Moscow in December 1812, the Prussians resisted their oppressor. To commemorate that fact the Iron Cross was instituted on March 20th 1813. The design came from Karl Friedrich Schinkel, a Prussian architect.
The design was kept very simple. The core was made by a black cross, surrounded by a silver trim. The obverse side had an oak leave in the middle. Below that on the lower arm the year 1813 was placed. The upper arm was gifted with a crowned Royal Cipher ?FW?. The front side would be blank until the original obverse turned to front side in 1838. The decoration was instituted with three grade, the Grosskreuz (Grand Cross) for senior commanders and the 1. Klasse (1st Class) and 2.Klasse (2nd Class) for individual merit in combat. The 1st and 2nd Class crosses had a size of 42mm although examples are known within the sizes 28mm to 42mm. The 2nd Class cross contained an eye welded to the top with which it could be attached to a ribbon. At the backside of the 1sr Class cross two eyes were welded to be able to sew is to the uniform. The ribbon was black with on both sides a white stripe. Non-combatant receivers got the Iron Cross on a white ribbon with two black stripes. The Grand Cross was 62mm in size and was worn on a ribbon around the neck in the same colours.
The Iron Cross was only to be awarded in war times with the goal to replace the peacetime awards. In reality other awards like the Rote Adlerorden (Order of the Red Eagle) and the Pour le M?rite were also awarded.
After the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, the Iron Cross was not to be awarded until the ending of the Franco-Prussian war in 1871. The decoration was re instituted on July 19th 1870 as a campaign award for merit.
The front (original obverse) was kept unchanged, but became once again the obverse. On the renewed front the upper arm got a crown and the Royal Monogram ?W? was placed in the middle. The year 1870 was placed on the lower arm. After the Franco-Prussian War, the Iron Cross again wasn?t awarded until the outbreak of the First World War.
It was again renewed in 1914. The institution date for the new Iron Cross was August 5th 1914. The design was kept the same as the 1870 version, but the date of 1870 was replaced with 1914. The Iron Cross retained her three grades, but this time with a standard size of 42mm. The width of the ribbon could vary between 25mm and 30mm. The construction was unchanged with a blackened iron core surrounded with the silver trim. Because iron and silver became rarer during the war, later crosses were made of alloy and silvered plated trim.
In 1939 the Iron Cross again was renewed, this time as an order of the German Reich. The ribbon now got the Reich?s colours black white and red. In contrary to the old Imperial orders, the Iron Crosses grades all could be awarded regardless the military ranks. Also the Iron Cross became for the first time a real German decoration. Before that is was only awarded to Prussian military. The original symbolic Iron Cross was remained unchanged, but the old Imperial and Royal symbols were replaced by the new Reich symbol of the Swastika. The year was changed to 1939 as the new date of institution.
At the institution date, four grades were instituted, 2nd Class, 1st Class, Knights Cross and Grand Cross. The grades would be further extended during the war years. To commemorate actions of merit from the First World War, both the 1st Class (EK I) and 2nd Class (EK II) crosses could be worn in the form of a new clasp called a ?spange?, worn on a First World War ribbon. To obtain a higher grade, all lower grades had to be obtained first. In some cases EK II and EK I could be obtained at the same time. Even more rarely this also was done with higher grades. It was allowed to wear all grades at the same time, which was not a custom in other countries with comparable orders. Most recipients found the original decoration to be very valuable that they often bought cheaper replica at own costs. The original was mostly kept at home.
A grade in the Iron Cross could be awarded for different reasons. Beside actions of exceptional merit, it could also be obtained for successful military planning, courage in non military actions, exceptional leadership and even for merital actions done by the soldiers under the command of the recipient. The Iron Cross could be obtained by military within the whole Wehrmacht, military from Germany?s allies, but also by uniformed civilians.
After the Second World War the carrying of the Swastika and German World War 2 decorations for military and political activities were forbidden by law. In 1957 this law was changed. Decorations from the Second World War were permitted. The Swastika still is forbidden, but the decorations themselves could be worn again, when the Swastika was removed. Recipients of the Iron Cross got with this possibility their recognition for pure military merit and it lost her political history. To replace lost or broken examples and because many didn?t want to remove the Swastika from their historical item, in 1957 from most former military decorations a special denazified version was produced.
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